土木工程外文翻譯65563

1、本科畢業(yè)設計外文資料翻譯英文題目：TallingbuildingandSteelconstruction2中文題目：高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)學院（部）：土木建筑學院專業(yè)班級：學生姓名：指導教師：XXX助教2012年06月02日標準外文資料TallingbuildingandSteelconstructionAlthoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral.Spectaculararchievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahi

2、gh-risebuildings.Theearlydevelopmentofhigh-risebuildingsbeganwithstructuralsteelframing.Reinforcedconcreteandstressed-skintubesystemshavesincebeeneconomicallyandcompetitivelyusedinanumberofstructuresforbothresidentialandcommercialpurposes.Thehigh-risebuildingsrangingfrom50to110storiesthatarebeingbui

3、ltallovertheUnitedStatesaretheresultofinnovationsanddevelopmentofnewstructualsystems.GreaterheightentailsincreasedcolumnandbeamsizestomakebuildingsmorerigidsothatunderwindloadtheywillnotswaybeyondanacceptablelimitExcessivelateralswaymaycauseseriousrecurringdamagetopartitions,ceilings.andotherarchite

4、cturaldetails.Inaddition,excessiveswaymaycausediscomforttotheoccupantsofthebuildingbecausetheirperceptionofsuchmotion.Structuralsystemsofreinforcedconcreteaswellassteeltakefulladvantageofinherentpotentialstiffnessofthetotalbuildingandthereforerequireadditionalstiffeningtolimitthesway.Inasteelstructu

5、reforexampletheeconomycanbedefinedintermsofthetotalaveragequantityofsteelpersquarefootoffloorareaofthebuildingCurveAinFig.1representstheaverageunitweightofaconventionalframewithincreasingnumbersofstories.CurveBrepresentstheaveragesteelweightiftheframeisprotectedfromalllateralloads.Thegapbetweentheup

6、perboundaryandthelowerboundaryrepresentsthepremiumforheightforthetraditionalcolumn-and-beamframeStructuralengineershavedevelopedstructuralsystemswithaviewtoeliminatingthispremium.Systemsinsteel.Tallbuildingsinsteeldevelopedasaresultofseveraltypesofstructuralinnovations.Theinnovationshavebeenappliedt

7、otheconstructionofbothofficeandapartmentbuildings.Framewithrigidbelttrusses.Inordertotietheexteriorcolumnsofaframestructuretotheinteriorverticaltrussesasystemofrigidbelttrussesatmid-heightandatthetopofthebuildingmaybeused.AgoodexampleofthissystemistheFirstWisconsinBankBuilding(1974)inMilwaukee.Frame

8、dtube.Themaximumefficiencyofthetotalstructureofatallbuilding,forbothstrengthandstiffnesstoresistwindloadcanbeachievedonlyifallcolumnelement文案標準canbeconnectedtoeachotherinsuchawaythattheentirebuildingactsasahollowtubeorrigidboxinprojectingoutoftheground.Thisparticularstructuralsystemwasprobablyusedfo

9、rthefirsttimeinthe43-storyreinforcedconcreteDeWittChestnutApartmentBuildinginChicago.Themostsignificantuseofthissystemisinthetwinstructuralsteeltowersofthe110-storyWorldTradeCenterbuildinginNewYorkColumn-diagonaltrusstube.Theexteriorcolumnsofabuildingcanbespacedreasonablyfarapartandyetbemadetoworkto

10、getherasatubebyconnectingthemwithdiagonalmembersinterestingatthecentrelineofthecolumnsandbeams.ThissimpleyetextremelyefficientsystemwasusedforthefirsttimeontheJohnHancockCentreinChicago,usingasmuchsteelasisnormallyneededforatraditional40-storybuilding.BundledtubeWiththecontinuingneedforlargerandtall

11、erbuildings,theframedtubeorthecolumn-diagonaltrusstubemaybeusedinabundledformtocreatelargertubeenvelopeswhilemaintaininghighefficiency.The110-storySearsRoebuckHeadquartersBuildinginChicagohasninetubebundledatthebaseofthebuildinginthreerows.Someoftheseindividualtubesterminateatdifferentheightsofthebu

12、ilding,demonstratingtheunlimitedarchitecturalpossibilitiesofthislateststructuralconcept.TheSearstower,ataheightof1450ft(442m),istheworldstallestbuilding.Stressed-skintubesystem.Thetubestructuralsystemwasdevelopedforimprovingtheresistancetolateralforces(windandearthquake)andthecontrolofdrift(lateralb

13、uildingmovement)inhigh-risebuilding.Thestressed-skintubetakesthetubesystemastepfurther.Thedevelopmentofthestressed-skintubeutilizesthefa?adeofthebuildingasastructuralelementwhichactswiththeframedtube,thusprovidinganefficientwayofresistinglateralloadsinhigh-risebuildings,andresultingincost-effectivec

14、olumn-freeinteriorspacewithahighratioofnettogrossfloorarea.Becauseofthecontributionofthestressed-skinfa?ade,theframedmembersofthetuberequirelessmass,andarethuslighterandlessexpensive.Allthetypicalcolumnsandspandrelbeamsarestandardrolledshapesminimizingtheuseandcostofspecialbuilt-upmembers.Thedepthre

15、quirementfortheperimeterspandrelbeamsisalsoreduced,andtheneedforupsetbeamsabovefloors,whichwouldencroachonvaluablespace,isminimized.Thestructuralsystemhasbeenusedonthe54-storyOneMellonBankCenterinPittburgh.Systemsinconcrete.Whiletallbuildingsconstructedofsteelhadanearlystart,developmentoftallbuildin

16、gsofreinforcedconcreteprogressedatafastenoughratetoprovideacompetitivechanllengetostructuralsteelsystemsforbothofficeandapartment文案標準buildings.Framedtube.Asdiscussedabove,thefirstframedtubeconceptfortallbuildingswasusedforthe43-storyDeWittChestnutApartmentBuilding.Inthisbuilding,exteriorcolumnsweres

17、pacedat5.5ft(1.68m)centers,andinteriorcolumnswereusedasneededtosupportthe8-in.-thick(20-m)flat-plateconcreteslabs.Tubeintube.Anothersysteminreinforcedconcreteforofficebuildingscombinesthetraditionalshearwallconstructionwithanexteriorframedtube.Thesystemconsistsofanouterframedtubeofverycloselyspacedc

18、olumnsandaninteriorrigidshearwalltubeenclosingthecentralservicearea.Thesystem(Fig.2),knownasthetube-in-tubesystem,madeitpossibletodesigntheworldspresenttallest(714ftor218m)lightweighconcretebuilding(the52-storyOneShellPlazaBuildinginHouston)fortheunitpriceofatraditionalshearwallstructureofonly35stor

19、ies.Systemscombiningbothconcreteandsteelhavealsobeendeveloped,anexamleofwhichisthecompositesystemdevelopedbyskidmore,Owings&Merrilinwhichanexteriorcloselyspacedframedtubeinconcreteenvelopsaninteriorsteelframing,therebycombiningtheadvantagesofbothreinforcedconcreteandstructuralsteelsystems.The52-stor

20、yOneShellSquareBuildinginNewOrleansisbasedonthissystem.Steelconstructionreferstoabroadrangeofbuildingconstructioninwhichsteelplaystheleadingrole.Moststeelconstructionconsistsoflarge-scalebuildingsorengineeringworks,withthesteelgenerallyintheformofbeams,girders,bars,plates,andothermembersshapedthroug

21、hthehot-rolledprocess.Despitetheincreaseduseofothermaterials,steelconstructionremainedamajoroutletforthesteelindustriesoftheU.S,U.K,U.S.S.R,Japan,WestGerman,France,andothersteelproducersinthe1970s.Earlyhistory.ThehistoryofsteelconstructionbeginsparadoxicallyseveraldecadesbeforetheintroductionoftheBe

22、ssemerandtheSiemens-Martin(openj-hearth)processesmadeitpossibletoproducesteelinquantitiessufficientforstructureuse.Manyofproblemsofsteelconstructionwerestudiedearlierinconnectionwithironconstruction,whichbeganwiththeCoalbrookdaleBridge,builtincastironovertheSevernRiverinEnglandin1777.Thisandsubseque

23、ntironbridgework,inadditiontotheconstructionofsteamboilersandironshiphulls,spurredthedevelopmentoftechniquesforfabricating,designing,andjioning.Theadvantagesofironovermasonrylayinthemuchsmalleramountsofmaterialrequired.Thetrussform,basedontheresistanceofthetriangletodeformation,longusedintimber,wast

24、ranslatedeffectivelyintoiron,withcastironbeing文案標準usedforcompressionmembers-ie,thosebearingtheweightofdirectloading-andwroughtironbeingusedfortensionmembers-ie,thosebearingthepullofsuspendedloading.Thetechniqueforpassingiron,heatedtotheplasticstate,betweenrollstoformflatandroundedbars,wasdevelopedas

25、earlyas1800;by1819angleironswererolled;andin1849thefirstIbeams,17.7feet(5.4m)long,werefabricatedasroofgirdersforaParisrailroadstation.TwoyearslaterJosephPaxtonofEnglandbuilttheCrystalPalacefortheLondonExpositionof1851.Heissaidtohaveconceivedtheideaofcageconstruction-usingrelativelyslenderironbeamsas

26、askeletonfortheglasswallsofalarge,openstructure.ResistancetowindforcesintheCrystalpalacewasprovidedbydiagonalironrods.Twofeatureareparticularlyimportantinthehistoryofmetalconstruction;first,theuseoflatticedgirder,whicharesmalltrusses,aformfirstdevelopedintimberbridgesandotherstructuresandtranslatedi

27、ntometalbyPaxton;andsecond,thejoiningofwrought-irontensionmembersandcast-ironcompressionmembersbymeansofrivetsinsertedwhilehot.In1853thefirstmetalfloorbeamswererolledfortheCooperUnionBuildinginNewYork.Inthelightoftheprincipalmarketdemandforironbeamsatthetime,itisnotsurprisingthattheCooperUnionbeamsc

28、loselyresembledrailroadrails.ThedevelopmentoftheBessemerandSiemens-Martinprocessesinthe1850sand1860ssuddenlyopenthewaytotheuseofsteelforstructuralpurpose.Strongerthanironinbothtensionandcompression,thenewlyavailablemetalwasseizedonbyimaginativeengineers,notablybythoseinvolvedinbuildingthegreatnumber

29、ofheavyrailroadbridgesthenindemandinBritain,Europe,andtheU.S.AnotableexamplewastheEadsBridge,alsoknownastheSt.LouisBridge,inSt.Louis(1867-1874),inwhichtubularsteelribswereusedtoformarcheswithaspanofmorethan500ft(152.5m).InBritain,theFirthofForthcantileverbridge(1883-90)employedtubularstruts,some12ft

30、(3.66m)indiameterand350ft(107m)long.Suchbridgesandotherstructureswereimportantinleadingtothedevelopmentandenforcementofstandardsandcodificationofpermissibledesignstresses.Thelackofadequatetheoreticalknowledge,andevenofanadequatebasisfortheoreticalstudies,limitedthevalueofstressanalysisduringtheearly

31、yearsofthe20thcentury,asiccasionallyfailuressuchasthatofacantileverbridgeinQuebecin1907,revealed.Butfailureswererareinthemetal-skeletonofficebuildings;thesimplicityoftheirdesign文案標準provedhighlypracticalevenintheabsenceofsophisticatedanalysistechniques.Throughoutthefirstthirdofthecentury,ordinarycarb

32、onsteel,withoutanyspecialalloystrengtheningorhardening,wasuniversallyused.Thepossibilitiesinherentinmetalconstructionforhigh-risebuildingwasdemonstratedtotheworldbytheParisExpositionof1889.forwhichAlexandre-GustaveEiffel,aleadingFrenchbridgeengineer,erectedanopenworkmetaltower300m(984ft)high.Notonly

33、wastheheight-morethandoublethatoftheGreatPyramid-remarkable,butthespeedoferectionandlowcostwereevenmoreso,asmallcrewcompletedtheworkinafewmonths.Thefirstskyscrapers.Meantime,intheUnitedStatesanotherimportantdevelopmentwastakingplace.In1884-85Maj.WilliamLeBaronJenney,aChicagoengineer,haddesignedtheHo

34、meInsuranceBuilding,tenstorieshigh,withametalskeleton.JenneybeamswereofBessemersteel,thoughhiscolumnswerecastiron.Castironlintelssupportingmasonryoverwindowopeningswere,inturn,supportedonthecastironcolumns.Soildmasonrycourtandpartywallsprovidedlateralsupportagainstwindloading.Withinadecadethesametyp

35、eofconstructionhadbeenusedinmorethan30officebuildingsinChicagoandNewYork.Steelplayedalargerandlargerroleinthese,withrivetedconnectionsforbeamsandcolumns,sometimesstrengthenedforwindbracingbyoverlayinggussetplatesatthejunctionofverticalandhorizontalmembers.Lightmasonrycurtainwalls,supportedateachfloo

36、rlevel,replacedtheoldheavymasonrycurtainwalls,supportedateachfloorlevel,replacedtheoldheavymasonry.ThoughthenewconstructionformwastoremaincentredalmostentirelyinAmericaforseveraldecade,itsimpactonthesteelindustrywasworldwide.Bythelastyearsofthe19thcentury,thebasicstructuralshapes-Ibeamsupto20in.(0.5

37、08m)indepthandZandTshapesoflesserproportionswerereadilyavailable,tocombinewithplatesofseveralwidthsandthicknessestomakeefficientmembersofanyrequiredsizeandstrength.In1885theheavieststructuralshapeproducedthroughhot-rollingweighedlessthan100pounds(45kilograms)perfoot;decadebydecadethisfigureroseuntil

38、inthe1960sitexceeded700pounds(320kilograms)perfoot.CoincidentwiththeintroductionofstructuralsteelcametheintroductionoftheOtiselectricelevatorin1889.Thedemonstrationofasafepassengerelevator,togetherwiththatofasafeandeconomicalsteelconstructionmethod,sentbuildingheightssoaring.InNewYorkthe286-ft(87.2-

39、m)FlatironBuildingof1902wassurpassedin1904bythe文案標準375-ft(115-m)TimesBuilding(renamedtheAlliedChemicalBuilding),the468-ft(143-m)CityInvestingCompanyBuildinginWallStreet,the612-ft(187-m)SingerBuilding(1908),the700-ft(214-m)MetropolitanTower(1909)and,in1913,the780-ft(232-m)WoolworthBuilding.Therapidin

40、creaseinheightandtheheight-to-widthratiobroughtproblems.Tolimitstreetcongestion,buildingsetbackdesignwasprescribed.Onthetechnicalside,theproblemoflateralsupportwasstudied.Adiagonalbracingsystem,suchasthatusedintheEiffelTower,wasnotarchitecturallydesirableinofficesrelyingonsunlightforillumination.The

41、answerwasfoundingreaterrelianceonthebendingresistanceofcertainindividualbeamsandcolumnsstrategicallydesignedintotheskeletnframe,togetherwithahighdegreeofrigiditysoughtatthejunctionofthebeamsandcolumns.Withtodaysmoderninteriorlightingsystems,however,diagonalbracingagainstwindloadshasreturned;onenotab

42、leexampleistheJohnHancockCenterinChicago,wheretheexternalX-bracesformadramaticpartofthestructuresfa?ade.WorldWarIbroughtaninterruptiontotheboominwhathadcometobecalledskyscrapers(theoriginofthewordisuncertain),butinthe1920sNewYorksawaresumptionoftheheightrace,culminatingintheEmpireStateBuildinginthe1

43、931.TheEmpireStates102stories(1,250ft.381m)weretokeepitestablishedasthehightestbuildingintheworldforthenext40years.Itsspeedoftheerectiondemonstratedhowthoroughlythenewconstructiontechniquehadbeenmastered.AdepotacrossthebayatBayonne,N.J.,suppliedthegirdersbylighterandtruckonascheduleoperatedwithmilli

44、taryprecision;ninederrickspowerdebyelectrichoistsliftedthegirderstoposition;anindustrial-railwaysetupmovedsteelandothermaterialoneachfloor.Initialconnectionsweremadebybolting,closelyfollowedbyriveting,followedbymasonryandfinishing.Theentirejobwascompletedinoneyearand45days.Theworldwidedepressionofth

45、e1930sandWorldWarIIprovidedanotherinterruptiontosteelconstructiondevelopment,butatthesametimetheintroductionofweldingtoreplacerivetingprovidedanimportantadvance.Joiningofsteelpartsbymetalareweldinghadbeensuccessfullyachievedbytheendofthe19thcenturyandwasusedinemergencyshiprepairsduringWorldWarI,buti

46、tsapplicationtoconstructionwaslimiteduntilafterWorldWarII.Anotheradvanceinthesameareahadbeentheintroductionofhigh-strengthboltstoreplacerivetsinfieldconnections.SincethecloseofWorldWarII,researchinEurope,theU.S.,andJapanhas文案標準greatlyextendedknowledgeofthebehaviorofdifferenttypesofstructuralsteelund

47、ervaryingstresses,includingthoseexceedingtheyieldpoint,makingpossiblemorerefinedandsystematicanalysis.Thisinturnhasledtotheadoptionofmoreliberaldesigncodesinmostcountries,moreimaginativedesignmadepossiblebyso-calledplasticdesign?Theintroductionofthecomputerbyshort-cuttingtediouspaperwork,madefurther

48、advancesandsavingspossible.中文翻譯文案標準高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)近來幾年來，盡管一般的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設計獲取了很大的進步，但是獲取顯然成績的還要屬超高層建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設計。最初的高層建筑設計是從鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的設計開始的。鋼筋混凝土和受力外包鋼筒系統(tǒng)運用起來是比較經(jīng)濟的系統(tǒng)，被有效地運用于大批的民用建筑和商業(yè)建筑中。50層到100層的建筑被定義為超高層建筑。而這種建筑在美國得廣泛的應用是由于新的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展和創(chuàng)新。這樣的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸，這樣以來能夠使建筑物更加堅固以致于在贊同的限度范圍內(nèi)承受風荷載而不產(chǎn)生波折和傾斜。過分的傾斜會以致建筑的隔斷構(gòu)件、頂棚以及其他建筑細部產(chǎn)生循環(huán)損壞

49、。除此之外，過大的搖動也會使建筑的使用者們因感覺到這樣的的晃動而產(chǎn)生不愉快的感覺。無論是鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)還是鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)都充分利用了整個建筑的剛度潛力，因此不能夠期望利用節(jié)余的剛度來限制側(cè)向位移。在鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)設計中，經(jīng)濟估量是依照每平方英寸地板面積上的鋼材的數(shù)量確定的。圖示1中的曲線A顯示了老例框架的平均單位的重量隨著樓層數(shù)的增加而增加的情況。而曲線B顯示則顯示的是在框架被保護而不受任何側(cè)向荷載的情況下的鋼材的平均重量。上界和下界之間的地域顯示的是傳統(tǒng)梁柱框架的造價隨高度而變化的情況。而結(jié)構(gòu)工程師改進結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的目的就是減少這部分造價。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)中的系統(tǒng)：鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的高層建筑的發(fā)展是幾種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)新的結(jié)

50、果。這些創(chuàng)新的結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)被廣泛地應用于辦公大樓和公寓建筑中。剛性帶式桁架的框架結(jié)構(gòu)：為了聯(lián)系框架結(jié)構(gòu)的外柱和內(nèi)部帶式桁架，能夠在建筑物的中間和頂部設置剛性帶式桁架。1974年在米望基建筑的威斯康森銀行大樓就是一個很好的例子?？蚣芡步Y(jié)構(gòu)：若是所有的構(gòu)件都用某種方式互相聯(lián)系在一起，整個建筑就像是從地面發(fā)射出的一個空心筒體或是一個剛性盒子相同。這個時候此高層建筑的整個結(jié)構(gòu)抵抗風荷載的所有強度和剛度將達到最大的效率。這種特其他結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)首次被芝加哥的43層鋼筋混凝土的德威特紅棕色的公寓大樓所采用。但是這種結(jié)構(gòu)體系的的所有應用中最引人凝視的還要屬在紐約建筑的100層的雙筒結(jié)構(gòu)的世界貿(mào)易中心大廈。斜撐桁架筒體

51、：建筑物的外柱能夠互相獨立的間隔部署，也能夠借助于經(jīng)過梁柱中心線的交織的斜撐構(gòu)件聯(lián)系在一起，形成一個共同工作的筒體結(jié)構(gòu)。這種高度的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)首次被芝加哥的JohnHancock中心大廈采用。這項工程所耗用的剛剛量與傳統(tǒng)的四十層高樓的用鋼量相當。文案標準筒體：隨著對更高層建筑的要求不斷地增大。筒體結(jié)構(gòu)和斜撐桁架筒體被設計成捆束狀以形成更大的筒體來保持建筑物的高效能。芝加哥的110層的SearsRoebuck總部大樓有9個筒體，從基礎開始分成三個部分。這些獨立筒體中的終端處在不相同高度的建筑體中，這充分表現(xiàn)出了這種新式結(jié)構(gòu)看法的建筑風格自由化的潛能。這座建筑物1450英尺（442米）高，是世界上最高

52、的大廈。薄殼筒系通通：這種筒體結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的設計是為了加強超高層建筑抵抗側(cè)力的能力（風荷載和地震荷載）以及建筑的抗側(cè)移能力。薄殼筒體是筒系通通的又一大飛馳。薄殼筒體的進步是利用高層建筑的正面（墻體和板）作為與筒體共同作用的結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件，為高層建筑抵抗側(cè)向荷載供應了一個有效的路子，而且可獲取不用設柱，成本較低，使用面積與建筑面積之比又大的室內(nèi)空間。由于薄殼立面的貢獻，整個框架筒的構(gòu)件無需過大的質(zhì)量。這樣以來使得結(jié)構(gòu)既輕快又經(jīng)濟。所有的典型柱和窗下墻托梁都是軋制型材，最大程度上減小了組合構(gòu)件的使用和耗費。托梁周圍的厚度也可合適的減小。而可能據(jù)有難得空間的墻上鐓梁的尺寸也能夠最大程度地獲取控制。這種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)

53、已被建筑在匹茲堡洲的OneMellon銀行中心所運用。鋼筋混凝土中的各系統(tǒng)：誠然鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的高層建筑起步比較早，但是鋼筋混凝土的高層建筑的發(fā)展特別快，無論在辦公大樓還是公寓住處方面都成為剛結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的有力競爭對手?？蚣芡玻合裆厦嫠岬降?，框架筒構(gòu)思首次被43層的迪威斯公寓大樓所采用。在這座大樓中，外柱的柱距為5.5英尺（1.68米）。而內(nèi)柱則需要支撐8英寸厚的無梁板。筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)：另一種針對于辦公大樓的鋼筋混凝土系統(tǒng)把傳統(tǒng)的剪力墻結(jié)構(gòu)與外框架筒相結(jié)合。該系統(tǒng)由柱距很小的外框架與圍繞中心設備區(qū)的剛性剪力墻筒組成。這種筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)（如插圖2）使得當前生界上最高的輕質(zhì)混凝土大樓（在休斯頓建筑的獨殼購物中心大廈

54、）的整體造價只與35層的傳統(tǒng)剪力墻結(jié)構(gòu)相當。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)與混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)的結(jié)合系統(tǒng)也有所發(fā)展。Skidmore,Owings和Merrill共同設計的混雜系統(tǒng)就是一個好例子。在此系統(tǒng)中，外面的混凝土框架筒包圍著內(nèi)部的鋼框架，從而結(jié)合了鋼筋混凝土系統(tǒng)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)各自的優(yōu)點。在新奧爾良建筑的層的獨殼廣場大廈就是運用了這種系統(tǒng)。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)是指在建筑物結(jié)構(gòu)中鋼材起著主導作用的結(jié)構(gòu)，是一個很廣泛的看法。大部分的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)都包括建筑設計，工程技術(shù)、工藝。平時還包括以主梁、次梁、桿件，板等形式存在的鋼的熱軋加工工藝。上個世紀七十年代，除了對其他資料的需求在增加，鋼結(jié)構(gòu)依舊保持著對于來自美國、英國、日本、西德、法國等國家的鋼材

55、廠鋼材的大批需求。文案標準發(fā)展歷史：早在Bessemer和Siemens-Marton(開放式爐)工藝出現(xiàn)以前，鋼結(jié)構(gòu)就已經(jīng)有幾十年的歷史了。而直到此工藝問世此后才使得鋼材能夠大批生產(chǎn)出來供結(jié)構(gòu)所用。對鋼結(jié)構(gòu)諸多問題的研究開始于鐵結(jié)構(gòu)的使用，當時很出名的研究對象是1977年在英國建筑的橫跨斯沃河的Coalbrookdale大橋。這座大橋以及此后的鐵橋設計再加上蒸汽鍋爐、鐵船身的設計都刺激了建筑安裝設計以及連接工藝的發(fā)展。鐵結(jié)構(gòu)對資料的需求量較小是優(yōu)勝于磚石結(jié)構(gòu)的主要方面。長久以來素來用木材制作的三角桁架也換成鐵制的了。承受由直接荷載產(chǎn)生的重力作用的受壓構(gòu)件常用鑄鐵制造，而承受由懸掛荷載產(chǎn)生的推

56、力作用的受拉構(gòu)件常用熟鐵制造。把鐵加熱到塑性狀態(tài)，使之從卷狀轉(zhuǎn)變成扁平狀與圓狀之間的某一狀態(tài)的工藝，早在1800年就得以發(fā)展了。隨后，1819年角鋼問世，1894年第一個工字鋼被建筑出來作為巴黎火車站的頂梁。此工字鋼長17.7英尺）（5.4米）。1851年英國的JosephPaxtond為倫敦博覽會建筑了水晶宮。聽聞當時他已有這樣的骨架結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)思：用比較細的鐵梁作為玻璃幕墻的骨架。此建筑的風荷載抵抗力是由對角拉桿所供應的。在金屬結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展歷史中，有兩個標志性事件：第一是從木橋發(fā)展而來的格構(gòu)梁由木制轉(zhuǎn)變成鐵制；其次是鍛鐵制的受拉構(gòu)件與鑄鐵制的受壓構(gòu)件受熱后經(jīng)過鉚釘連接工藝的發(fā)展。十九世紀五六十年代

57、，Bessemer與Siemens-Martin工藝的發(fā)展使鋼材的生產(chǎn)能滿足結(jié)構(gòu)的需求。鋼的受拉強度與受壓強度都好于鐵。這種新式的金屬常被有想象力的工程師所利用，特別倍受那些參加過英國、歐洲以及美國的道橋建設的工程師的喜愛。其中一個很好的例子就是Eads大橋（也被稱為路易斯洲大橋）（1867-1874）。在這座大橋中，每隔500英尺（152.5米）設有由鋼管加強肋形成的拱。英國的FirthofForth懸索橋設有管件支撐，直徑大體為12英尺（3.66米），長度為350英尺（107）米。這些大橋以及其他結(jié)構(gòu)在引導鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展，規(guī)范的推行，許用應力的設計方面起到了很重要的作用。1907年Quebec懸索大橋的有時損壞揭示