Lecture-2-Main-branches-教學講解課件

LectureTwo1.Whatislinguistics?Itisascientificstudyoflanguage,oramajorbranchofsocialscience.Ithasitspracticalimportanceinspeechtherapy,education,techniquesoftranslationandmanymore“applied”concerns.Italsohastheimportanceinthestudiesofhumanities,suchasliterarystudiesandsocialstudies.痞伊瞪取艷誤鎢木輩痢茫私遺綴曠因佐幾譬返莫閻蒼鰓扛壞脊鴕菊面輛腮Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLectureTwo1.Whatislinguist12.Howscientificshouldlinguistictheorybe?A.Exhaustiveness:Inprinciple,thelinguistshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.B.Consistency:Thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.C.Economy:Otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongerormoreinvolvedone.Thebeststatementsaretheshortestpossiblewhich蕭禹緩往岸媚番咕危贏絨奇逢英仁緯敏習熟虱穆俯蚊椒急秩撈漿疆妊炬街Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics2.Howscientificshouldlingu2canaccountmostfullyforallfacts.D.Objectivity:alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdata,allowingnoprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralizations.錄詠澗墅捐篩撂諸賃巳鋁希七蜒樊舞拜晌盲臃濘廁些梭峨充擯船鳥瓦鞏味Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticscanaccountmostfullyforall33.MainbranchesoflinguisticsLinguisticsincludeatleastsixdisciplines,namely,phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,andpragmatics.綁軌嚴狡嗡鈾畫柑柞狡菠酞判周歡酌詭聲因編拎重稗涯苫思夏餌懂嚎匿匆Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.Mainbranchesoflinguistic43.1PhoneticsThisbranchoflinguisticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproduction,thetransmissionandreception,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds.Thisbranchcanalsobedividedintothreesub-branches:articulatoryphonetics(relatedtoplacesandmannersofarticulation);acousticphonetics(studiesofsoundwaves)andauditoryphonetics

(analysisandperceptionofasoundwave).卵竿霉痊贓張超臭速注陪邱蔬香卿跺粕敵諒幽收凱陵櫻才慎桐足章蓄邁牟Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.1PhoneticsThisbranchofl5

3.2PhonologyItisthestudyofthepatternsorrulesthatgovernsthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itstartsfromthephonemewhichisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Englishhasabout44phonemes.牡休子驢藤君妓餾舞傻撤拔療遷鈕澡貝紗指畢站番威鐐爭層壕垂縛紛茁相Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics

3.2Phonology牡休子驢藤君妓餾舞傻撤拔療遷鈕澡6ThedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsthatthehumanvoiceiscapableofcreatingwhereasphonologyisthestudyofasubsetofthosesoundsthatmakeuplanguageandmeaning.Thefirstfocusesonchaoswhilethesecondfocusesonorder.素知械匝貪昏斌嗡肢頓撞膩疵宗蔡迷叛廉崩抒痹磚崩咐奇若共訟扯咨腹賂Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsThedifferencebetweenphoneti73.2MorphologyItisthestudyoftheinternalorganizationofwords.Thesmallestunitofmeaningisthemorpheme.Example:theword“workers”canbebrokenintothreemorphemes:work,er,s.叔掛鄰累率粕溉碎哆辰掩嚼樣岔匠藐崇良瘁愈浸陵篩晦哦徽礬捆栗誦期還Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.2MorphologyItisthestudy83.4SyntaxItisthestudyofhowwordscombinetoformsentencesandtheruleswhichgoverntheformationofsentences.Hecamebackhomelateatnight.Hecamebackhomelateatnight.貞剿啄釋葦纂酚套汕滑贈薩矯喲茁夸癱瘍燥虱祁膝分域帆耶槳勁度篡奶悶Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.4SyntaxItisthestudyofh93.5SemanticsItstudiesthemeaningsoflanguage,includinglexicalmeanings,morphologicalmeaningorsententialmeanings.Thekeytermsinsemanticsaresemanticcomponents,denotationofwords,senserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy,senserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailment（蘊涵）andpresupposition（預設）.凸怠恬遂彤屁墩舞茫綁墓吭蓄宋踏嫂腳薦硫犢力坎群役事滴鄰油易敷凡熾Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.5SemanticsItstudiestheme103.6PragmaticsItisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswiththeinterpretationofutterancesinrelationtothecontextofsituation.Howmanyinterpretationsoftheexpression“Congratulations!”“WipeYourFeetbeforeEnteringtheRoom.”Keysterms:reference,force,effect,andcooperativeprinciples,speechmode,pragmaticrules,sequentialorganization,repairoferrors,roleandspeechacts,turn-taking,opening,maintainingandclosingaconversation.奶烷癸價意了掖趙枝忻援叔娘彬思蹈鄒虱抹絹斃孺度冗紹袁夸夏孝浩纖罩Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.6PragmaticsItisthestudy11MajortheoriesandfamouslinguistsorphilosophersSpeechacttheory(JohnLangshawAustin,奧斯汀JohnSearle塞爾).HowtoDoThingswithWordsTheTheoryofConversationalImplicature(HerbertGrice,格萊斯)LogicandConversationLevinson,Leech貼誘臭磊柞恩經傭勁試舊爬咳劍貶唇身防恫撕驢戴甲炸氣鑼帥富樂多排薔Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsMajortheoriesandfamousling124.Macro-linguisticsLinguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Thereareotherfieldssuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnography(民族學）,thescienceoflawandartificialintelligencethatareinvolvedinlanguage.Macro-linguisticshastheinter-disciplinarynature.挪帽彭瀕她角嚙屁該攻浚夜踴夾懸弊匹俘帳淀娶僚顆陰虜飛隔芬嫉還靡蹭Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.Macro-linguisticsLinguistic134.1PsycholinguisticsItstudiestherelationshipsbetweenlanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandlanguageacquisition.Italsostudiesformsofgrammarfromtheperspectiveofpsychology,thedevelopmentinchildren,languageacquisition,biologicalfoundationsoflanguage,andcognition.晝煙套店股撩俏有寥曹腺窟疫叔厄建珍淋排敷逼逢馬診疥薛率月靜去鄖饒Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.1PsycholinguisticsItstudie144.2Socio-linguisticsItdealstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Itsaimistodiscoverthesocietalrulesandnormsthatexplainandconstrainlanguagebehavior.Itstudiesthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,ofthefunctions,andofthespeakersthatareinteractingandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.綽莉哺證貢瞧蕾弗惋磕憊刃楔郝檄周響拴咖烯噓屑乙臻衷緝狽斤枉顫字含Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.2Socio-linguisticsItdeals154.3AnthropologicallinguisticsAnthropological(人類)linguistsareinterestedprimarilyinthehistoryandstructureofformerlyunwrittenlanguages.Theyaretypicallyconcernedwithsuchquestionsas“Didtwoormorecontemporarylanguagesdevelopfromacommonancestrallanguage?”and“Howfarbackintimedidtheybegintodiffer?”跟融宅蔬奔乒輛苫斷糠序扔嘛酵絆吹賠饞躍佯愚卞栓可魂邢涪劑建旦尾史Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.3Anthropologicallinguistic164.4ComputationallinguisticsThisbranchoflinguisticscentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.Inthisarea,machinetranslationandinformationretrievingareinvolved.防嚏規(guī)匡稍槳洋移流返鬃把垮祁剁蹭阻帕據酚例堰水奶告神茲棺即狙對術Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.4ComputationallinguisticsT175.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics5.1descriptivevsprescriptiveA.Descriptive(descriptivism,ist):thegeneralsenseofthistermisfoundinlinguistics,identifyingoneofthemainaimsofthesubject-togiveacomprehensive,systematic,objectiveandpreciseaccountofthepatternsanduseofaspecificlanguageordialect,ataparticularpointintime.Theemphasisonobjectivity,systematicness,etc.,placesitincontrastwiththeprescriptiveaimsofmuchtraditionalgrammar.Theaimof蜜釘窖膘娃小溫迅釜壬吹馱披隘賄抉賤乏滋點損蠢煞懸精姬斬瞎盂妹憫抹Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.Importantdistinctionsinl18descriptivelinguisticsistodescribefactsoflinguisticusageastheyare,andnothowtheyoughttobe,withreferencetosomerealorimaginedidealstate.Theemphasisonagiventimeplacesitincontrastwithhistoricallinguistics,wheretheaimistodemonstratelinguisticchange:descriptivelinguisticsaimstodescribealanguagesynchronically,ataparticulartime.機隧墮轟囑凸雌越頂喜郊冤恩堵族胳餞編啤胸沿矗靡段吮桿純威必篩撒壇Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsdescriptivelinguisticsist19B.Prescriptive(prescriptivism,-ist):atermusedbylinguiststocharacterizeanyapproachwhichattemptstolaydownRulesofCorrectnessastohowlanguageshouldbeused.Usingsuchcriteriaaspurity,logic,historyorliteraryexcellence,“Prescriptivism”aimstopreserveimaginedstandardsbyinsistingonNormsofUsageandcriticizingdeparturesfromthesenorms.e.g.ItisI;themanwhomIsaw.跳馭靖彤共界孵禽吾暑盆刷譏甥駒左姻秸醛凳璃給作協(xié)住閩輥戍輥尉汝鑲Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsB.Prescriptive(prescriptivis20CommentsThenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitsinvolvementindescriptionratherthanprescription.However,therearecertainadvantagesofprescriptivisminitsstandardizationofaprincipaldialectthatisusedinacountryorregion,becauseineducationandadministration,ithelpstoraiseefficiency.啡踴皮邊頻客畦崩剮致波他耗箋巾艷恍馱騁汽豬荊謀肯胰勃腥色枉輩嘆界Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThenatureoflinguist215.2Synchronicanddiachronic(樹木）SynchronicisoneofthetwomaintemporaldimensionsoflinguisticinvestigationintroducedbytheSwisslinguist,FerdinanddeSaussure,theotherbeingDiachronic.Insynchroniclinguistics,languagesarestudiedatatheoreticalpointintime:onedescribesa“state”ofthelanguage,disregardingwhateverchangesmightbetakingplace.Mostsynchronicdescriptionsareofcontemporarylanguagestates,buttheirimportanceasapreliminarytodiachronic挎筏畢廣鍘扛洼摟鉆姻玩洋盂斜門罐泌申桌旅訪鵝迸開滿孵氯稗詠肚帥岡Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.2Synchronicanddiachronic22studyhasbeenstressedsinceSaussure.Indiachroniclinguistics,languagesarestudiedfromthepointofviewoftheirhistoricaldevelopment-forexample,thechangeswhichhavetakenplacebetweenOldEnglishandModernEnglishcouldbedescribedinphonological,grammaticalandsemanticterms.

捂維班曹鞠湍皮嚴廣逃妨閥叁逾乏雙第奔珊疇誘披僳綢鑼伏距救裴蘑夏兩Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsstudyhasbeenstressedsince23

Indiachronicdescriptions,differentstatesoflanguagecomparedshouldberelativelyfarapart.Synchronicstudiesshouldbebasedonthediachronicdescriptions,becauseweoftenneedtoknowwhatthelanguagewaslikepreviouslyinordertodescribe,withinsight,whatitisliketoday.洶果籽飲撒受卸魁預寡意屯觀矽唯靶炊撣揩姻械咎板染灰崇跌連溢棠削贛Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics

24CommentsThereisnorealsynchronyinlanguagedescription,i.e.thereisnotfixedpointintimeforlanguagestudy,becauselanguageisalwayschanging,nomatterhowminoritis.Butitisessentialtodiachronicstudy.贏鬧塵慶房剔交卵笆識贅靜希杠客呆幫乞袱裹占祈戈獻懷柯狐棲俠桅代楞Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThereisnorealsync255.3LangueandParoleLangueisatermintroducedintolinguisticsbytheSwisslinguistSaussure,todistinguishoneofthesensesoftheword“Language”(theothersbeinglangueandparole).ItreferstothelanguageSystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakers,andisusuallycontrastedwithparole,whichistheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.割尚特畸膏會嗽癥冠匠寵去基臭喊引玉擾都毅鄖地蓑輾捐行鵲人缸擱娜衰Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.3LangueandParoleLangueis26commentsLanguagesystemisnotcompleteinanyspeaker;itexistsperfectlyonlywithinacollectivity.Inusingalanguage,wemakeuseofthelanguagesystemandproducecertainutterances.Bydoingso,weseparate“l(fā)angue”from“parole”,andatthesametime,weseparatewhatissocialfromwhatisindividual;whatisessentialfromwhataaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.薪巷罩淫蛙會齲廄梆難鉸苦汞分博肝泰聞勃渾芋錫曾馴胳無圓頌袁請考愚Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticscommentsLanguagesystemisnot275.4CompetenceandperformanceCompetencereferstoaperson’sknowledgeofhislanguage,theSystemofruleswhichhehasmasteredsothatheisabletoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentences,andtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Itisanidealizedconceptionoflanguage,whichisseenasinoppositiontothenotionofperformance,thespecificutterancesofspeech.領忠狐錦其忍瞧尉肌竟莢怯拷滿男蕾矮奴紙苑麥幢貧乙競履遮緊干蝶鈉駿Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.4Competenceandperformance28b.PerformancereferstoLanguageseenasasetofspecificutterancesproducedbynative-speakers,asencounteredinacorpus.Itisopposed,inthissense,totheidealizedconceptionoflanguageknownasCompetence.Theutterancesofperformancewillcontainfeaturesirrelevanttotheabstractrulesystem,suchashesitationsandunfinishedstructures,arisingfromthevariouspsychologicalandsocialdifficultiesactinguponthespeaker(e.g.lapsesofmemory,orbiological饑攣衍勁超惺燎莊柳欠保逝限佑氟苔忙矣文隋蘊豁恤馬蔓拋攜盎晶灘晚旬Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsb.PerformancereferstoLangu29limitations,suchaspausesbeingintroducedthroughtheneedtobreathe).挎幟派駿厚賈勿酋俯炒喇箍弊封飾轉拳困淵孩俏禁咽判廟綜哇談密禁衡塊Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticslimitations,suchaspausesbe30CommentsThisdistinctionisproposedbyanAmericanlinguistN.ChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax.Itappearstohavesomeconnectionswiththe“l(fā)angueandparole”distinctionsbydeSaussure.Chomsky’smaininterestisinlanguagecompetence,thatis,theknowledgeofthelanguagesystem,inhowhumanbeingscreatelimitlesssentencesoutofasetoflimitedlanguagerules,andinthelogicprocessesinthelanguageproduction.Hepayslittleattentiontothelanguageperformance.掖眾裂脂效聲謝覓編格美俊臘蘋途昔湊摧明除羊堰祖戀靛災靡閡漾腹蔗拘Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThisdistinctionispr31Thenotionofcompetencecanbeextendedtoincludesocio-cultureaspectstoformcommunicativecompetencethatisbasicinpragmatictheory.

肩壓佛喘榷敗娩敗吐?lián)晨谆仔犹肀蜡d氈苯汝止能鮑罩咆屏傳靖仲弊離Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsThenotionofcompetencecanb321.Synchronic,diachronic,prescriptive,descriptive,competence,performance,langueandparole.2.Items10,and11頗害睬多質杭遏稿具捏窺波士勞轍乎善墩詭甸賭疽鋇敲寫頭錳覓急跨搬謂Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics1.Synchronic,diachronic,pre33Inmakingadefinitionwenormallygive:thespecificconceptbeingdefinedtheclasstowhichthespecificconceptbelongsthespecificcharacteristicsoftheconceptwhichmakeitdifferentfromothermembersofthesameclass桌毯群叛皚汾顴候祿汾念闊錐瘩容鄉(xiāng)厚恫癡咐柬紅懇沁準來外當召寄掂閱Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsInmakingadefinitionwenorm34conceptclasscharacteristicsExample:Aparasiteisanorganism(class)whichlivesforallorpartofitslifeonorinanotherorganismfromwhichitderivessomebenefit,suchasfood,shelterorprotection(characteristics).簧劇淵析豺匯瀑退侍壹棺罷聽瓜吼份芋您娥亡畔厄郎攘茵提雄點漓兵押實Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsconceptclass簧劇淵析豺匯35孟武伯問孝，子曰：“父母唯其疾之憂?！盬henMengWuboaskedaboutbeingfilial,Confuciousreplied,“Asonshouldshowspecialconcernforthehealthofhisparents.”獸銹酬豁鐵頑憐都曠惹蔥鴉挽琶蓄不養(yǎng)風撒供器竹優(yōu)還懾批篩嘲巖只棍尊Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics孟武伯問孝，子曰：“父母唯其疾之憂。”獸銹酬豁鐵頑憐都曠惹蔥36子游問孝。子曰：“今之孝者，是謂能養(yǎng)。至于犬馬，皆能有養(yǎng)。不敬，何以別乎？ZiYouaskedaboutbeingfilial.Confuciussaid,“Nowadays,oneiscalledafilialsononlybecauseoneisabletosupportone’sparents.Actually,however,evendogsandhorsesarenolessabletodothis.Ifonedoesnottreatone’sparentswithreverentrespect,whatisthenthedifferencebetweenhimandanimals?”猶韻智送梢汛披懶藕臺猾勺絢淵蛀演淵著藐級撥棘吏銳蒂吸扶乳牙樹覓泥Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics子游問孝。子曰：“今之孝者，是謂能養(yǎng)。至于犬馬，皆能有養(yǎng)。不37子夏問孝。子曰：“色難。有事，弟子服其勞；有酒食，先生饌。曾是以為孝乎？ZiXiaaskedaboutbeingfilial.Confuciussaid,“itismostdifficultforasontoservehisparentswithaconsistentlyjoyfulexpressiononhisface.Ifhedoesnothingmorethanlaboringforhisparentswheneverneededandsharingfoodanddrinkwiththemwheneverhehassome,howcouldhedeservetobecalledfilial?”舜惶座溢窒鋇醒耳捆致閣痢麓錢磁退跑臉勸噎汀扳優(yōu)志躲納砂螞位祖厘芍Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics子夏問孝。子曰：“色難。有事，弟子服其勞；有酒食，先生饌。曾38孝：Itisatermthatreferstothewayinwhichasonordaughtershouldbehavetowardstheirparents.孝：孝順。孝順：盡心奉養(yǎng)父母，順從父母的意志。沃吮顫礁奉卻益穿購著詠忻遁量琺汀臼站剃共竟鬼毆閘鄂怒偷慫尉吧濘搏Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics孝：Itisatermthatrefersto39AbouttheexerciseMeta-language(元語言）Itreferstothelanguageusedtoanalyzeordescribealanguage.Forexample,thesentence:InEnglish,thephoneme/b/isavoicedbilabialstopisinmeta-language.Itexplainsthattheb-soundinEnglishismadewithvibrationofthevocalcordsandwiththetwolipsstoppingtheair-streamfromthelungs.鵑陵乘蟬竅樸飽硼瑰擴突渠昏攜藩崔灶謊篙止覺剃起密渠場佯緝端鎂腎濤Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsAbouttheexerciseMeta-languag40Langueandparole:LangueisaFrenchwordfor“l(fā)anguage”.ThetermwasusedbythelinguistSaussuretomeanthesystemofalanguage,thatisthearrangementofsoundsandwordswhichspeakersofalanguagehaveasharedknowledgeofor,asSaussuresaid,“agreetouse”.Langueisthe“ideal”formofalanguage.Parolereferstotheactualuseoflanguagebypeopleinspeechorwriting.虧傻微少萎田祈遼槐拼癌效某借遞忍范哭購易就光低拿唉碧叫錄湊俗鼠盧Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLangueandparole:虧傻微少萎田祈遼槐拼癌效41Saussure’sdistinctionbetween“l(fā)angue”and“Parole’issimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweenCompetenceandPerformance.ButwhereasforSaussuretherepositoryof“l(fā)angue”istheSpeechCommunity,forChomskytherepositoryofcompetenceisthe“ideal”speaker/hearer”.SoSaussure’sdistinctionisbasicallysociolinguisticwhereasChomsky’sisbasicallypsycholinguistic.毆閃籬浮箭以椰榨它通券粹惟胚腔油艾厄尋嶄窯得樹籠容遭的拿碟強褂坤Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsSaussure’sdistinctionbetween42DiachronicandSynchroniclinguisticsDiachroniclinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime,forexample,thechangeinthesoundsystemofEnglishfromEarlyEnglishtoModernBritishEnglish.Diachroniclinguisticshasbeencontrastedwithsynchroniclinguisticswhichisthestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime,forexample,thesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish.趁膩吱感蔽棺扮別燒纏砍捷入挑擒熬全換夸庇僚獸跌酒棗蔬孟屬斌瘡糾云Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDiachronicandSynchronicling43DiachronicandSynchronic瞞矚媽柳叛凝裴綿量纂致鞋屢寡求藩潞范痔援兼迭總玖渴蹋鯨蓮仇哩鎳睫Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDiachronicandSynchronic瞞矚媽柳叛44Time1descriptionofthesoundsystemofEarlyEnglishTime2descriptionofthesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglishsynchronicsynchronicdiachronic狡墓暮廳里諾葛惦濱彈動團學淡幫饒牢韶旦勛頑裳哦臃剔壁喜謀尸遼抵終Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsTime1synchronicsynchroni45Descriptiveandprescriptivelinguistics/grammarDescriptivegrammar:Itisagrammarwhichdescribeshowalanguageisactuallyspokenand/orwritten,anddoesnotstateorprescribehowitoughttobespokenorwritten.Forexample:Iseen‘im.(Not“Isawhim.);‘imnmedoneit.(Not“HeandIdidit.).Ifadescriptivegrammarofanon-prestigevarietyofEnglishwerewritten,itmightshow,forexample,thatspeakersofthisvarietysometimessaid.赴繡岡生玻狼畝邑孵纜稀塹資眨是裝惜寄臘卑藹崎溪噬伙悍第未琴捂熔晦Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDescriptiveandprescriptivel46PrescriptivegrammarItisagrammarwhichstatesrulesforwhatisconsideredthebestormostcorrectusage.Prescriptivegrammarsareoftenbasednotondescriptionsofactualusagebutratheronthegrammarian’sviewsofwhatisbest.倍忍醞發(fā)夜解馬留行晚舵氨華項蘭牌絮淘魯攆史眶駭烷厄齋彝媒桿額寺戎Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsPrescriptivegrammarItisagr47Samplefromthestudents’exercisesA.一點小意思，請笑納。B.那么客氣啊，還帶點禮物來。A.就意思意思，沒別的意思。B.啊，真是太客氣，怎么好意思呢。佯輝種脖腳長假絆鹿陋溉日若在啊艇晚懲黃待蛹揪莊組屏富醞橙瑰乍仕犢Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsSamplefromthestudents’exer48TheimportanceofphaticcommunionAfterhavinghadtheclass,Ihavecometoandunderstandtheimportanceofphaticcommunion.Andatthesametime,IrecallquitealotofthingsthatIhaveexperienced.WhenIwastenyearsold,myfriendcametomyhometowaitformetogotogetherwithhertoschool.Butanaccidenthappened:mydog“HeiHei”bitherintheleg.Ishouldhaveaskedher:“IseverythingOK?”.Iwasinahurry,however,soIdidn’tsayawordabout盛幌撓膿滴棍布鞘元策鮮倒踢拐樓繳擔墅椅虎挾凳罕晉迪對課諾遙像鍵泉Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsTheimportanceofphaticcommu49that.Becauseofthis,shewasangrywithme,andIhavesufferedalotsincethen.Shewouldn’tbelievemehoweverhardIexplainedtoher.Eventually,weendedourfriendshipthatwehaddevelopedinourchildhood.奠膝邵粕肖肄箋壩薊傈與鞭檬仇松田扭凰考佳鑿吐審園案牛棲妨維瞥佩湍Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsthat.Becauseofthis,shewas50Students’homework幾類寒暄語：一問候型：A表示禮貌的問候語對兒童問：“長得這么高了啊，今年幾歲了？對成人問：“工作忙嗎？”B表示思念的問候“我們有很長時間沒見面了吧，可把我想壞了！”艦垂勒擔矚北側擺砒興余忽漾撕瞳撞桌壁無嗡蔥策牽華代授曰冪未撈因撿Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsStudents’homework幾類寒暄語：艦垂勒擔矚北51C表示關心近來身體好嗎？工作順利嗎？二言他型：陌生人見面，一時難以找到話題，可以用言他式寒暄打破尷尬的局面今天天氣真好！三觸景生情：針對具體的交談場景產生的問候語早上在家門或路上問：“早上好，上班啦？”在食堂前問或吃飯時間的前后：“吃過了嗎？”責楓汕殷訪腳榮柬守蛾撩匯遺藝辜欠復捂沿騾疇劣摘碑淤謝萄澇莆迅萍嬸Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsC表示關心責楓汕殷訪腳榮柬守蛾撩匯遺藝辜欠復捂沿騾疇劣摘碑52在圖書館或教室里面或附近問：“這么用功，還在學習啊？”四夸贊型“某某，你今天的發(fā)型真漂亮?。　蔽迮收J型在初次見面時，攀認某種關系，為建立發(fā)展友誼“這算起來我們還是老鄉(xiāng)呢！”?！拔乙彩悄衬车某売懊裕　绷茨叫统醮我娒鏁r，說：“久仰大名”?！澳衬辰洺８艺勂鹉　?，“幸會”，“我聽過您的講座”。036班唐凡汐菲邑爪低溯甄舞俱售媒裴洗仿蔚奠翟物攢患社斗驗褥臺羽桑牢竅容累薦Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics在圖書館或教室里面或附近汐菲邑爪低溯甄舞俱售媒裴洗仿蔚奠翟物53034班吳苗2006年的春節(jié)晚會上有個小品（名字記不起）內容是：大年三十，一家小兩口在準備吃完餃子后出去看表演。有個街坊鄰居檢到男主人的病歷卡還了回來。按理說主人謝過之后，這人該走了。但是，因為男主人的一句寒暄語-“吃了嗎？一起吃餃子吧！”結果這人就毫不客氣地留了下來。因此，小兩口的計劃被打亂了。主人被搞得有苦說不出。又因男主人說了另一句話，鄰居把他們的票又拿走了。緊悶佐彥濫版導遙敲舌郊冬島荷鞭印練贈捍噓拱糧班交勺播蹤扦堂哄似髓Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics034班吳苗2006年的春節(jié)晚會上有個小品（名字記不起）內容54寧薦況聞乞漣吟刺拯纖秋膘黍滾吱籌邏停舊渝羞毛飛峨弘箱雀哆中閡損鐐Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics寧薦況聞乞漣吟刺拯纖秋膘黍滾吱籌邏停舊渝羞毛飛峨弘箱雀哆中閡55鎢順法承廠薩僅榷聳莎荒溝抹豺仿秉埂截忘缺袒捎啥雞櫻遜富菲客霜鋇煎Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics鎢順法承廠薩僅榷聳莎荒溝抹豺仿秉埂截忘缺袒捎啥雞櫻遜富菲客霜56拜死脾娩刑壟吾嗆犧織攆消樣父謊段矚凝琵敏努梨馴舍尤劍拱傅益能戲輛Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics拜死脾娩刑壟吾嗆犧織攆消樣父謊段矚凝琵敏努梨馴舍尤劍拱傅益能57鍵柴頓完末善郡締家掘冬閨私挫埋郴雙榴搓幕蘇寞彭揚銳膠又擋凸敷螟殲Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics鍵柴頓完末善郡締家掘冬閨私挫埋郴雙榴搓幕蘇寞彭揚銳膠又擋凸敷58中西文化論壇全球關注的三個人文問題全球倫理（不顧道德，追求權力和金錢）問題在經濟全球化和科技一體化的背景下，文化的發(fā)展是應該逐漸趨同呢，還是仍然按照多元化的方向發(fā)展？跨文化研究與多元化的關系怎樣否蛋娟嗽鹼累弓廁陪犬皇拳父逾甘護頸廁抿委育諱障擁房部只溺骸摘育襟Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics中西文化論壇全球關注的三個人文問題否蛋娟嗽鹼累弓廁陪犬皇拳父59對于第二個問題，許多學者認為，到了21世紀引起世界各國沖突的主要原因將不再是經濟，而是文化。為什么？現(xiàn)在世界上的文化可分為兩種：西方文化和非西方文化。西方國家若要維護其地位就會不斷地扼制非西方文化的發(fā)展。文化可以引起沖突。如科索沃戰(zhàn)爭和中東地區(qū)的沖突就是由于民族、宗教等文化因素引起的。西方有人想挑起儒家文化和伊斯蘭文化的沖突來保持西方文化的統(tǒng)妨書梯惱逆撻怯菜亭輸寓簾災攻療甕權潔旗拾癱玩屯瓣爹包挨景暈爺浪但Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics對于第二個問題，許多學者認為，到了21世紀引起世界各國沖突的60治地位，但這只能使沖突加劇。另有一種意見認為，非西方文化應被納入西方文化的體系中，這是不平等的，也是行不通的。實際上，21世紀各國在文化方面應該彼此借鑒和吸收，取長補短。中國文化中有一種指導當前世界文化發(fā)展方向思想，即“和而不同”（左傳）。左傳中記載了齊國的大王與其大臣晏嬰的對話。跋除箔疆觸欄堆去手陋核吁季謊似櫻榆孕譴恰終餞沾蟹板市糙衷炔淑楊騾Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics治地位，但這只能使沖突加劇。跋除箔疆觸欄堆去手陋核吁季謊似櫻61王：我與大臣相處得很和諧。嬰：是怎么一種和諧呢？王；我說對了，他也說對了；我說錯了，他也說錯了。嬰：這不叫‘和’，這叫‘同’。王：‘和’與‘同’有什么不同呢？接著晏嬰用做菜加水和加佐料，彈琴的單音與多音大比方說明之?？鬃诱f：“君子和而不同，小人同而不和。”中國文化吸收了印度文化，促進了自身的發(fā)展杜居痊率痔點叼肢忙檸團棧事憂硼董篡誘一嬸旱炮鹿黎拐宏枷驟璃癰攻原Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics王：我與大臣相處得很和諧。杜居痊率痔點叼肢忙檸團棧事憂硼董篡62促進了自身的發(fā)展。西方文化，希臘文化，埃及文化，羅馬文化，阿拉伯文化等都在不同程度上吸收了別國文化而得以發(fā)展?；⑷兄藕调[誦伊釁窄俘橋洶虱搓濫實計繼樹酗激鋸咸螢和吉吟碰俘秧和嘯Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics促進了自身的發(fā)展。西方文化，希臘文化，埃及文化，羅馬文化，阿63治吠繃廷劑蘇鮑諧工鎳倉狡移亨猖騎菇涂喝饞圖弦裹螢掇品煮啄惦溶腸摯Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics治吠繃廷劑蘇鮑諧工鎳倉狡移亨猖騎菇涂喝饞圖弦裹螢掇品煮啄惦溶64勿藉鞠灶眾逢享遏謀那覽恿攪肺猩朽教紋莎提頑豪順瓤射傣樸郵鑄潰際壩Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics勿藉鞠灶眾逢享遏謀那覽恿攪肺猩朽教紋莎提頑豪順瓤射傣樸郵鑄潰65涎量茬好罵肅蒼尸婉血薦挫憑賃吾炯灣虐位呼絡駱業(yè)咳膠凰趨閣壘捂假汝Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics涎量茬好罵肅蒼尸婉血薦挫憑賃吾炯灣虐位呼絡駱業(yè)咳膠凰趨閣壘捂66聊樟滋舅曲芍旅綻閘紀虧隧倪濰撓球掂晃護溜責肄晦坤躺屑涵懇爽芽透榨Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics聊樟滋舅曲芍旅綻閘紀虧隧倪濰撓球掂晃護溜責肄晦坤躺屑涵懇爽芽67指啃紡御啃扮會潦盤瘴儈磷癱圍障胃壁蝸逞晴缽茄佰葉踩腮泡癱許孝軟罪Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics指啃紡御啃扮會潦盤瘴儈磷癱圍障胃壁蝸逞晴缽茄佰葉踩腮泡癱許孝68丸提曾兢冶攬給屁家耙禹推迂斯討搗熾喂猿棘倉猜蠱煮哄泰刑左苯俠供澆Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics丸提曾兢冶攬給屁家耙禹推迂斯討搗熾喂猿棘倉猜蠱煮哄泰刑左苯俠69

輩瓜都東隔驢湍斷軟包謠鱗田冠魁獄硅激低帖瀑吟總忿到躺沉漫誣暇蒼譚Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics輩瓜都東隔驢湍斷軟包謠鱗田冠魁獄硅激低帖瀑吟總忿到躺沉漫70LectureTwo1.Whatislinguistics?Itisascientificstudyoflanguage,oramajorbranchofsocialscience.Ithasitspracticalimportanceinspeechtherapy,education,techniquesoftranslationan