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1、中英文對(duì)照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)變化中的會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性一一與當(dāng)前環(huán)境與時(shí)俱進(jìn),理查德貝克2005年8月具注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師??闹骶幜_伯特科爾森在他2004年3月的專欄里的研究表明,“會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性”的概念,在過(guò)去的150多年中,是不斷變化的。從一般意義上說(shuō),會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性與當(dāng)前的商業(yè)環(huán)境是存在著密切的關(guān)聯(lián)的。但是,不同的“會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性”的概念之間,并沒(méi)有明顯的過(guò)渡。通常情況下,許多審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的不同概念的提出,都是圍繞著專業(yè)的會(huì)計(jì)師、審計(jì)師、監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)和一般公眾之間的獨(dú)立性,所展開討論的。會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的最初概念,出現(xiàn)在19世紀(jì)。它的出現(xiàn),是基于這樣一個(gè)前提的,即主要是英國(guó)本土的專業(yè)會(huì)計(jì)師和

2、審計(jì)師,對(duì)整個(gè)大英帝國(guó)以前的和現(xiàn)有的殖民資本承擔(dān)監(jiān)督的責(zé)任。在此期間,數(shù)量上相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)較少的會(huì)計(jì)師事務(wù)所,卻要對(duì)相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)大數(shù)量的群體執(zhí)行審計(jì)的任務(wù)。這些專業(yè)的會(huì)計(jì)師和審計(jì)師就有可能同時(shí)對(duì)不同的實(shí)體出具財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告、為不同的投資群體工作。在這個(gè)時(shí)代,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的概念,并沒(méi)有把審計(jì)設(shè)想為一個(gè)獨(dú)立存在的審計(jì)實(shí)體;英國(guó)投資者明確禁止審計(jì)者在其審計(jì)的企業(yè)工作或參與投資。與此同時(shí),只要會(huì)計(jì)師保持對(duì)主要投資者的審計(jì)服務(wù),他們的專業(yè)會(huì)計(jì)服務(wù)的范圍,是可以合理地?cái)U(kuò)大的。例如,審計(jì)師被允許可以幫他們所審計(jì)的企業(yè)編制財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)表。會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性這一初步的概念在19世紀(jì)末到20世紀(jì)初發(fā)生了改變。在這段時(shí)期,經(jīng)濟(jì)上有了

3、一個(gè)大的變化,那就是資本的主要來(lái)源由國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)轉(zhuǎn)向到外國(guó)資本市場(chǎng)。這一變化的出現(xiàn)是與美國(guó)的大型工業(yè)公司,如采礦,鐵路,能源,電力和電信,的出現(xiàn)相關(guān)聯(lián)的。伴隨著這些美國(guó)大公司的出現(xiàn)的,也包括著對(duì)公司商業(yè)性的理解的改變。在上世紀(jì)30年代,經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家阿道夫貝爾和伽爾迪納指出,推進(jìn)對(duì)這一變化的理解的,是大型企業(yè)所有權(quán)的分離,以及會(huì)計(jì)和審計(jì)對(duì)于公司的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)益的重要性。在這一新思路下,審計(jì)的主要職責(zé),就是為集體的所有權(quán)益的需要而服務(wù),而不是某個(gè)具體的無(wú)所有權(quán)的利益。這種集體的所有權(quán)益,基本上是由國(guó)內(nèi)的股東組成,通常往往是大銀行或非常富有的投資者。聯(lián)邦證券法在新政時(shí)代的通過(guò),以及美國(guó)證券交易委員會(huì)的成立,使會(huì)計(jì)

4、師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的概念,有了再一次的轉(zhuǎn)變。美國(guó)證券交易委員會(huì)的成立,對(duì)建立出具財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告和審計(jì)法規(guī)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),有著最重要的影響。通過(guò)這種努力,公共的會(huì)計(jì)師和審計(jì)師不再認(rèn)為他們的主要職責(zé),是為那些特定的物主,或某些集體的所有權(quán)益;而是按照一套既定的專業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),來(lái)編制財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)表,和進(jìn)行財(cái)務(wù)決算的審計(jì)工作。會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的概念,轉(zhuǎn)向?yàn)樵谪?cái)務(wù)狀況和經(jīng)營(yíng)業(yè)績(jī)的報(bào)告中保持客觀性和中立性,而不是忠于某一政黨。這一觀點(diǎn),由西澳佩頓教授,在理論上和書面上被闡述出來(lái),他著重強(qiáng)調(diào)了公司財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)表的重要性。會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的客觀和中立的概念,一直趨于上風(fēng),成為主流。直到20世紀(jì)70年代,當(dāng)財(cái)務(wù)會(huì)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則委員會(huì)成立,成為獨(dú)立的、權(quán)

5、威的會(huì)計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)制定者。大約從那個(gè)時(shí)候開始,公共的會(huì)計(jì)公司開始改變其客觀和中立的原則,并開始對(duì)他們的審計(jì)客戶宣傳和提供關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)和審計(jì)的事項(xiàng)。同時(shí),在全球范圍內(nèi),企業(yè)的快速增長(zhǎng),為公共的會(huì)計(jì)師事務(wù)所提供了大量的機(jī)會(huì)去獲得收入,而這些收入,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)了傳統(tǒng)的審計(jì)服務(wù)所能取得的收入。雖然,美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)的審計(jì)準(zhǔn)則委員會(huì)(ASB),發(fā)布的審計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),一直繼續(xù)強(qiáng)調(diào)著與客戶保持獨(dú)立性,但是日益激烈的審計(jì)服務(wù)市場(chǎng)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng),以及錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的國(guó)際商業(yè)慣例,導(dǎo)致一些審計(jì)者不得不違反會(huì)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則的客觀性和中立性的,因?yàn)檫@更有利于贏得客戶的信賴。繼2000年初的會(huì)計(jì)和審計(jì)丑聞之后,以及2002年沙賓法案的通過(guò),審計(jì)者被認(rèn)為是值得

6、信賴的顧問(wèn)的這種想法,似乎已經(jīng)越來(lái)越難以讓人信服。一個(gè)潛在的會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的新概念,仍然未能演變出來(lái),但上市公司會(huì)計(jì)監(jiān)督委員會(huì)(PCAOB)對(duì)這種獨(dú)立性的概念上,似乎更強(qiáng)調(diào)要在更大程度上區(qū)分注冊(cè)審計(jì)師和客戶管理的獨(dú)立性。會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的早期爭(zhēng)議在20世紀(jì)的下半葉,學(xué)術(shù)界和出現(xiàn)了關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的各種爭(zhēng)論和專業(yè)文獻(xiàn)。有一些關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的觀點(diǎn),是從包括英國(guó)和美國(guó)兩者的會(huì)計(jì)職業(yè)相關(guān)的歷史性觀點(diǎn)中理想化、發(fā)展和演變出來(lái)的。例如,托馬斯李,在公司審計(jì)第3版(范諾斯得萊因霍爾德,1986年,頁(yè)89)中提到的:一個(gè)誠(chéng)實(shí)的審計(jì)者應(yīng)該是完全獨(dú)立的,用獨(dú)立的意志和態(tài)度思考,絕不允許的其觀點(diǎn)和結(jié)論

7、,受到利益沖突所帶來(lái)的壓力所影響或?qū)ζ溆兴蕾?。不幸的是,雖然這種對(duì)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的表達(dá),是令人欽佩和向往的,但是這種對(duì)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的表達(dá),在一定程度上,是有不確定性的,因此,判斷一個(gè)會(huì)計(jì)師的審計(jì)是否是獨(dú)立的,根據(jù)托馬斯李的定義要得出結(jié)論,是不可能的。皮莫扎爾,在“獨(dú)立性”(在當(dāng)前審計(jì)的問(wèn)題,由木雪納爾和斯特利編輯,保羅查普曼公司出版,1991年)中,主張會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立的經(jīng)濟(jì)邏輯的辯論,是這樣歸納的:人們期望會(huì)計(jì)師進(jìn)行了審計(jì)后,可以把不能訴訟成功的概率和審計(jì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)降低到一個(gè)可以接受的水平。用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的語(yǔ)言來(lái)說(shuō),審計(jì)員執(zhí)行審計(jì)工作的費(fèi)用,應(yīng)該是和工作量平等的,換句話說(shuō),是會(huì)計(jì)師執(zhí)行審計(jì)任務(wù)

8、時(shí)所產(chǎn)生的費(fèi)用,和其所能減少的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),是成正比的。然而,所有的審計(jì)者都是單獨(dú)的個(gè)體,他們都對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和回報(bào),持有著各自不同的態(tài)度,因此會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)工作的最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)并不一定必須是相同的。用這種經(jīng)濟(jì)上的理論來(lái)解釋會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性,似乎是合乎邏輯的。但是,如果某些審計(jì)者采納了關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的一般概念,是為了可以獲得好處,從中謀利,以便獲得更多的市場(chǎng)占有率和市場(chǎng)份額,那么這種觀點(diǎn)就不能成立了。換言之,雖然這種立足于經(jīng)濟(jì)上論證是有效的,但是會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性,還是需要一個(gè)可以去完全遵守的原則。正與此相反,相對(duì)于這種經(jīng)過(guò)專業(yè)的和經(jīng)濟(jì)論證的會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的概念,巴特利特在“審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的挑戰(zhàn)”(會(huì)計(jì)地平線,

9、第二卷,第五刊,第一期,1991年)中所提出的則大相徑庭。巴特利特認(rèn)為,關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性,有四種不同的比喻。1、“冒煙的槍口”,這個(gè)論點(diǎn)是說(shuō)只有少數(shù)幾個(gè)事例表明會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性被認(rèn)為是和審計(jì)失敗有所牽連的。大多數(shù)訴訟和被起訴的審計(jì)者,都是基于對(duì)其不稱職或不盡職調(diào)查的說(shuō)法上的,而不是缺乏獨(dú)立性。然而,因?yàn)闊o(wú)法獲得有關(guān)的審計(jì)失敗的詳細(xì)的記錄和其他的訴訟證據(jù),使這種觀點(diǎn)很難被證明。2、“我們這樣做很好?!边@一論點(diǎn)中,根據(jù)民意調(diào)查,公眾會(huì)計(jì)界普遍已經(jīng)得到了高度的關(guān)注。民意調(diào)查結(jié)果顯示,民眾所關(guān)心的,往往是會(huì)計(jì)師對(duì)于職業(yè)本身的尊重、對(duì)問(wèn)題的客觀性的處理、可靠性和誠(chéng)實(shí),而不是獨(dú)立性本身。雖然,客觀

10、性、可靠性和誠(chéng)實(shí),在一定程度上可能和獨(dú)立性有所重疊,什么是所謂的“獨(dú)立性”,實(shí)際上一般公眾并沒(méi)有一個(gè)清楚的概念。通常情況下,并沒(méi)有人告訴公眾,會(huì)計(jì)師的審計(jì)到底是在做些什么。3、“公共利益?!边@個(gè)是要表明,如果在公共會(huì)計(jì)的專業(yè)服務(wù)的范圍內(nèi)有了太多的限制,會(huì)計(jì)師事務(wù)所將無(wú)法正確的為客戶提供服務(wù),而白白的耗費(fèi)了大數(shù)額的費(fèi)用。一些公共的會(huì)計(jì)公司認(rèn)為,提供審計(jì)以外的服務(wù),讓他們能更好地履行審計(jì)義務(wù),因?yàn)樗鼈兛梢愿玫厝チ私馑麄兊目蛻簟?、“信任我們。”獨(dú)立性往往是說(shuō)一個(gè)專業(yè)的會(huì)計(jì)師所擁有的精神狀態(tài),因此這是不能被實(shí)證、以實(shí)驗(yàn)來(lái)觀察,或被量化的。這種說(shuō)法是基于審計(jì)者自身的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益出發(fā)的,即審計(jì)者被假定為可

11、以、會(huì)保持他的獨(dú)立性和客觀性,以便不損害其自身的長(zhǎng)期的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益。雖然這種假設(shè)可能是備受爭(zhēng)議的,因?yàn)檫@樣做是為了產(chǎn)生最大的、長(zhǎng)期的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益。某個(gè)會(huì)計(jì)師在執(zhí)行審計(jì)時(shí)可能會(huì)因?yàn)閭€(gè)人的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益而去權(quán)衡,從而保留某一個(gè)重要客戶,而不是去保持客觀性和獨(dú)立性,這實(shí)際上也破壞了“信任我們”的這一論調(diào)。市場(chǎng)變化對(duì)會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的影響喬納森?威爾,在“企業(yè)不為人知的欺騙:如何變更審計(jì)工作”(華爾街日?qǐng)?bào),2004年3月25日)指出,在20世紀(jì)的70年代和80年代的審計(jì)服務(wù)市場(chǎng),會(huì)計(jì)師進(jìn)行審計(jì)的方式是有所改變的,在一定程度上對(duì)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性是有所減弱的。這種變化的開始的第一個(gè)組成部分,是價(jià)格競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。在20世紀(jì)7

12、0年代以前,美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)的行為守則中是禁止會(huì)計(jì)師、審計(jì)者公開的為他們的審計(jì)服務(wù)做廣告的,或者為了贏得公司的客戶而相互競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的,甚至是去參加為審計(jì)舉行的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的投標(biāo)、競(jìng)標(biāo)。在受到聯(lián)邦政府的反壟斷訴訟的威脅下,美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)不得不被迫取消了這些對(duì)反競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的做法的禁令。其結(jié)果是,審計(jì)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性招標(biāo)變得司空見慣。審計(jì)變成了商品。審計(jì)實(shí)施上的第二個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)變,是越來(lái)越強(qiáng)調(diào)“審計(jì)基礎(chǔ)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)”。審計(jì)的基礎(chǔ)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的增大與審計(jì)任務(wù)的數(shù)量的增大成正比,這是合理的,這種假設(shè)是合乎邏輯的。但是,審計(jì)專家是可以確定一家公司的經(jīng)營(yíng)業(yè)務(wù)中,最危險(xiǎn)的那個(gè)部分的。不幸的是,安然公司和其他企業(yè)的倒閉,已經(jīng)表明,一些審計(jì)者沒(méi)有辦法充分的

13、確定,公司業(yè)務(wù)的經(jīng)營(yíng)運(yùn)作中,哪個(gè)部分會(huì)遭受著最大的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。止匕外,審計(jì)者采用基本風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的方法,有可能無(wú)法發(fā)現(xiàn)欺詐活動(dòng)。雖然這一會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的新概念,對(duì)于某種環(huán)境下的某個(gè)審計(jì)者,可能是適合的,但往往審計(jì)者會(huì)努力去用欺騙性的會(huì)計(jì)數(shù)字,幫助隱瞞經(jīng)營(yíng)狀況,從而隱瞞真實(shí)的經(jīng)濟(jì)業(yè)績(jī)。在20世紀(jì)90年代,似乎有些審計(jì)者會(huì)忽視他們的最直接的責(zé)任,而按照第三方投資者的利益去行動(dòng)。加強(qiáng)會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性法律上禁止擔(dān)任審計(jì)工作的會(huì)計(jì)師與委托人在財(cái)務(wù)上有經(jīng)濟(jì)利益關(guān)系,是美國(guó)從20世紀(jì)30年代直至20世紀(jì)90年代期間,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性原則存在的基礎(chǔ)。但這并不代表這在英國(guó)或其他一些國(guó)家也是同樣正確,即使禁止金融利益上的連

14、帶關(guān)系,通常是實(shí)際中按照最基本的會(huì)計(jì)制度中留心觀察,就可以得出的結(jié)論性做法。實(shí)際上,目前,禁止擔(dān)任審計(jì)工作的會(huì)計(jì)師擁有客戶的財(cái)務(wù)利益幾乎是一個(gè)普遍性的原則。美國(guó)證券交易委員會(huì)和公共會(huì)計(jì)行業(yè)都不約而同的把的他們大部分的注意力,重點(diǎn)地放在,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性概念的界定,和對(duì)財(cái)政利益的禁令的執(zhí)行上。詳細(xì)的規(guī)則和報(bào)告結(jié)構(gòu)已制定的出來(lái)了,目的是為了要揭露,任何一個(gè)會(huì)計(jì)師事務(wù)所的職業(yè)雇員,所可能擁有的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益,也包括這些職業(yè)雇員的配偶,父母,或他們的孩子。上市公司會(huì)計(jì)監(jiān)管委員會(huì)采用了這些規(guī)則中的一大部分,這在一定程度上緩和了那些制度上有不合理地方的地區(qū)的問(wèn)題。除此之外,還有輪換任用的審計(jì)方法。在某些國(guó)家,

15、如意大利,審計(jì)者可以對(duì)委托人執(zhí)行某一個(gè)特定年限的審計(jì)工作。這種類型的管理方法,在美國(guó)和英國(guó),從來(lái)沒(méi)有被認(rèn)真的考慮過(guò)。雖然法案要求,個(gè)別審計(jì)者要定期地輪換委托人客戶。而在法國(guó),會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的輪換概念是顛倒的:即審計(jì)者的任期為一段固定的時(shí)間,在這段時(shí)間里,他們不能被取代。這種規(guī)則的制定,目的是增加會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性,因?yàn)橛纱藢徲?jì)者對(duì)于被客戶解雇的擔(dān)憂就減少了。關(guān)于會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),上市公司會(huì)計(jì)監(jiān)管委員會(huì)通過(guò)了臨時(shí)準(zhǔn)則3600T作為其規(guī)章制度。第3600T準(zhǔn)則如下:任何有關(guān)審計(jì)報(bào)告的籌備或發(fā)布的,已經(jīng)登記的注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師事務(wù)所及其所有相關(guān)人員,都應(yīng)遵從獨(dú)立性標(biāo)準(zhǔn):(一)依照美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)的專業(yè)行

16、為守則第101條所描述的,依照裁決的特殊解釋除外,在2003年4月16日美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)專業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),東部部分101條和191條(美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)2002)的范圍內(nèi),是不能取代或修正的;(二)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)第1號(hào)、第2號(hào)、第3號(hào),及解釋中的99-1,00-1和00-2,在獨(dú)立準(zhǔn)則委員會(huì)的范圍內(nèi),不能取代或修正。從本質(zhì)上來(lái)說(shuō),上市公司會(huì)計(jì)監(jiān)管委員會(huì)已經(jīng)認(rèn)識(shí)到以前制定的會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),被美國(guó)注冊(cè)會(huì)計(jì)師協(xié)會(huì)和美國(guó)證券交易委員會(huì),通過(guò)獨(dú)立標(biāo)準(zhǔn)委員會(huì),又進(jìn)一步的發(fā)展了。對(duì)會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的重新思考我們現(xiàn)在需要的,是一個(gè)完整的對(duì)于會(huì)計(jì)師審獨(dú)立性概念的重新思考。這種復(fù)議可能帶來(lái)一種會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)獨(dú)立性的新概念,它是

17、基于重中專業(yè)的會(huì)計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的客觀性和中立性極其道德規(guī)范上的,而不是主張站在委托人、客戶的立場(chǎng)上??紤]到一些最近和正在發(fā)生的會(huì)計(jì)和審計(jì)丑聞,顯然,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性不應(yīng)該站在客戶的立場(chǎng)上。這種觀點(diǎn)要求,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的新概念要結(jié)合具體的主張來(lái)實(shí)施:(1)審計(jì)者不應(yīng)該提倡擁護(hù)他們的客戶;(2)管理者不能影響查賬公費(fèi),即審計(jì)費(fèi)用和會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的范圍。如果沒(méi)有過(guò)渡到這一概念,會(huì)計(jì)師審計(jì)的獨(dú)立性的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),將極有可能只是做做門面功夫,根本不足以保證審計(jì)者在實(shí)際中獨(dú)立于委托人管理者而存在。TheVaryingConceptofAuditorIndependenceShiftingwiththePrevailin

18、gEnvironment,C.RichardBakerAUGUST2005-AsCPAJournalEditor-in-ChiefRobertColsonobservedinhisMarch2004column,"AuditorIndependenceRedux,“theconceptofauditorindependencehasvariedoverthelast150years.Inageneralsense,auditorindependencehasbornearelationshiptotheprevailingcommercialenvironmentindifferen

19、ttimeperiods.Therehasnot,however,beenacleartransitionfromoneconceptofauditorindependencetoanother.Frequently,morethanoneideaofauditorindependencehasbeenpresentinthediscussionaboutindependencebetweenprofessionalaccountantsandauditors,regulators,andthegeneralpublic.Theinitialconceptofauditorindependen

20、ce,whicharoseduringthe19thcentury,wasbasedonthepremise,primarilyBritishinorigin,thataprincipaldutyofprofessionalaccountantsandauditorswastheoversightofabsenteinvestmentsintheexistingandformercoloniesoftheBritishEmpire.Duringthisperiod,arelativelysmallnumberofaccountingfirmscouldperformauditsforarela

21、tivelylargenumberofentities.Professionalaccountantsandauditorscouldrenderreportsonthefinancialperformanceofdifferententitiesandcouldworkfordifferentinvestorgroups.Theconceptofauditorindependenceduringthiseradidnotconceiveofauditorsasadvocatesforauditedentities;Britishinvestorsexplicitlyforbadeaudito

22、rsfrominvestingorworkinginthebusinessesthattheyaudited.Atthesametime,aslongasauditorsmaintainedtheirprimaryloyaltytotheinvestorsbackhome,thescopeofprofessionalaccountingservicescouldbereasonablybroad.Forexample,auditorswerepermittedtokeepthebooksandpreparethefinancialstatementsfortheentitiestheyaudi

23、ted.Thisinitialconceptofauditorindependencechangedduringthelate19thandearly20thcenturies.Duringthistime,therewasaneconomicshiftfromcapitalcomingprimarilyfromforeignsourcestocapitalderivingprimarilyfromdomesticsources.ThischangewasassociatedwiththeemergenceoflargeAmericancorporationsinindustriessucha

24、smining,railroads,energy,andtelegraphandtelephone.TheemergenceoflargeAmericancorporationswasaccompaniedbyachangeintheunderstandingofthepurposeandnatureofthebusinesscorporation.Inthe1930s,notedeconomistsAdolfBearleandGardinerMeansarticulatedthischangebyadvancingthepropositionthatlargecorporationswere

25、basedontheseparationofownershipfrommanagementandthatanimportantroleforaccountingandauditingwastoproperlyvaluetheproprietaryinterestofthecorporation.Inthecontextofthisnewideaofthecorporation,theauditor'sprimarydutywastoservetheneedsofthecollectiveproprietaryinterestratherthanaspecificabsentee-own

26、ershipinterest.Thiscollectiveproprietaryinterestessentiallycompriseddomesticshareholders,thatwereoftenlargebanksorwealthyinvestors,butincreasinglythegeneralpublichasbecomeinvolvedinstockownership.ThepassageofthefederalsecuritiesactsduringtheNewDealera,andthecreationoftheSEC,ledtoanothertransitionint

27、heconceptofauditorindependence.TheSECsmostimportanteffectonauditorindependenceedrivedfromitseffortstoestablishstandardsforfinancialreportingandauditing.Becauseoftheseefforts,publicaccountantsandauditorsnolongeracceptedthattheirprimaryresponsibilitywastoaspecificabsenteeowner,ortoacollectiveproprieta

28、ryinterest,butrathertoasetofprofessionalstandardsestablishedforthepreparationandauditoffinancialstatements.Theconceptofauditorindependenceshiftedinfavorofobjectivityandneutralityinthereportingofthefinancialpositionandtheresultsofoperations,ratherthanloyaltytoaparticularparty.Thisviewwasarticulatedac

29、ademicallyandintellectuallybyProfessorW.A.Paton,whostressedtheentityviewofcorporatefinancialreporting.Theobjectiveandneutralconceptofauditorindependenceprevaileduntilthe1970s,whenFASBwasestablishedastheauthoritativeindependentaccountingstandardssetter.Fromapproximatelythattime,publicaccountingfirmsb

30、egantomodifytheirobjectiveandneutralfocusandstartedadvocatingfortheirauditclientswithregardtoaccountingandauditingmatters.Simultaneously,therapidgrowthofbusinessenterprisesonaworldwidebasisprovidedlargepublicaccountingfirmswithanopportunitytobecomethepreferredprovidersofawidespectrumofbusinessservic

31、es,therevenuesfromwhichquicklyoutpacedthefeesfromtraditionalauditingservices.WhilethestandardsissuedbytheAuditingStandardsBoard(ASB)oftheAICPAcontinuedtostressindependencefromclients,theincreasinglycompetitivemarketplaceforauditservices,alongwiththecomplexityofinternationalbusinesspractices,ledsomea

32、uditorstoreducetheirfocusonobjectiveandneutralinterpretationofaccountingstandardsinfavorofbecomingatrustedadvisorforclients.Subsequenttotheaccountingandauditingscandalsoftheearly2000s,andthepassageoftheSarbanes-OxleyActof2002(SOA),theideaofauditorsastrustedadvisorsappearstohavebecomeincreasinglyunsu

33、stainable.Theparametersofapotentiallynewconceptofauditorindependencearestillunfolding,butthePublicCompaniesAccountingOversightBoard(PCAOB)seemstobestressingaconceptofauditorindependencethatemphasizesagreaterdegreeofseparationbetweenregisteredauditorsandclientmanagement.PriorDebatesAboutAuditorIndepe

34、ndenceThesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawvariousdebatesinboththeacademicandtheprofessionalliteraturesaboutauditorindependence.OneargumentpertainingtoauditorindependencedevelopedfromidealizedviewsofprofessionalismthatemergedhistoricallyinboththeBritishandtheAmericanaccountingprofessions.Forexample,Thoma

35、sA.Lee,inCompanyAuditing,3rded.(VanNostrandReinhold,1986,page89),suggestedthefollowing:Anhonestauditorwillbehavelikesomeonewhoisindependent,usingindependencetomeananattitudeofmindwhichdoesnotallowtheviewpointsandconclusionsofitspossessortobecomereliantonorsubordinatetotheinfluenceandpressuresofconfl

36、ictinginterests.Unfortunately,thisadmirableexpressionaboutauditorindependencedoesnotacknowledgethatanauditorstateofmindisnotdeterminable,and,therefore,toconcludewhetheranauditorisindependentpursuanttoLeeosssdiebflien.itionisimpP.Moizier,in"Independence(inCurrentIssuesinAuditing,editedbyM.Sherer

37、andS.Turley,PaulChapmanPublishingLtd.,1991),arguedforaneconomicrationaleforauditorindependence,whichwassummarizedasfollows:Thereisanexpectationthattheauditorwillhaveperformedanauditthatwillhavereducedthechancesofasuccessfulnegligencelawsuittoalevelacceptabletotheauditor.Inthelanguageofeconomics,thea

38、uditorwillperformauditworkuntilthecostofundertakingmoreworkisequaltothebenefittheauditorderivesintermsofthereductionintheriskofasuccessfullawsuitbeingpossible.Thisthenrepresentstheminimumamountofworkthatthereadercanexpecttheauditortoperform.However,allauditorsareindividualswithdifferentattitudestori

39、skandreturnandsooneauditor'minimumstandardofauditworkwillnotnecessarilybethatofacolleague.Thiseconomicargument,whilelogical,wouldbeunsustainableifcertainauditorstookadvantageofthegeneralpresumptionregardingauditorindependenceinordertoobtainincreasedmarketshare.Inotherwords,fortheeconomicargument

40、tobeeffective,completecompliancewiththeprincipleofauditorindependencewouldberequired.Incontrasttotheprofessionalandeconomicargumentsforauditorindependence,R.W.Bartlett,in“AHereticalChallengetotheIncantationsofAuditIndependence(AccountingHorizons,vol.5,No.1,1991),suggestedthatauditingisasortofceremon

41、yinvolvingincantationsaboutindependence.Bartlettarguedthattherehavebeenfourkindsof“incantations"regardingauditorindependence:The“smokinggun."Thisistheargumentthatonlyinafewdocumentedinstanceshasauditorindependencebeenfoundtobeimplicatedinauditfailures,atleastifoneacceptstheevidenceprovided

42、bylawsuitsandprosecutionsofauditorsforsecuritiesfraud.Mostlawsuitsandprosecutionsofauditorshavebeenbasedonassertionsofincompetenceorlackofduediligenceintheapplicationofauditingstandards,ratherthanlackofindependence.Aninabilitytoobtainaccesstodetailedrecordsoflawsuitsandotherevidenceaboutauditfailure

43、s,however,makesthisincantationdifficulttoprove.“Wearedoingprettygood."Basedonpublicopinionsurveys,thepublicaccountingprofessionhasgenerallybeenheldinhighregard.Publicopinionpollsassessingtheesteemoftheprofessionoftenaddressissueslikeobjectivity,reliability,andhonesty,ratherthanindependenceperse

44、.Whileobjectivity,reliability,honesty,andindependencemayoverlap,what"independence"actuallymeanstothegeneralpublicisunclear.Often,thepublicisnotwellinformedaboutwhatauditorsdo.The“publicgood."Thisincantationsuggeststhatiftoomanyconstraintsareplacedonthepublicaccountingprofession'ss

45、copeofservices,accountingfirmswillbeunabletoserveclientsproperly,therebyimposingsignificantcostsonthepublic.Somepublicaccountingfirmshavearguedthatprovidingnonauditingservicesallowsthemtoperformbetterauditsbecausetheycanobtainabetterunderstandingoftheclient'ssystems.“Trustus."Independenceis

46、oftensaidtobeamentalstatepossessedbyprofessionalaccountantsandthereforenotsubjecttoempiricalobservationorquantification.Thisincantationisbasedontheideaofauditoreconomicself-interest;thatis,auditorsareassumedtomaintainindependenceandobjectivitysoasnottoharmtheirlonger-termeconomicinterests.Thisassume

47、sthatauditorscontinuallyevaluatethecostsandbenefitsassociatedwithethicalbehaviorandalwaysresolveconflictsinfavorofbehavingethicallybecausedoingsoproducesthegreatestlong-termeconomicbenefit.Whiletheseassumptionsmaybeargued,itcanalsobeobservedthattheindividualeconomiccalculusofaparticularauditormaywei

48、ghinfavorofretaininganimportantclientratherthanbeingobjectiveandindependent,thusunderminingthe“trustus"argument.ChangesintheMarketThatAffectedAuditorIndependenceJonathanWeil,in“BehindWaysofCorporateFraud:AChangeinHowAuditorsWork”(TheWallStreetJournal,March25,2004),suggeststhatduringthe1970sand1

49、980sthemarketforauditservicesandthewayinwhichauditswereconductedchanged,contributingtoadeclineinauditorindependence.Thefirstcomponentofchangewaspricecompetition.Priortothe1970s,theAICPACodeofConductprohibitedauditorsfrompubliclyadvertisingtheirservices,frommakinguninvitedsolicitationstorivalfirms

50、9;clients,andfromparticipatingincompetitivebiddingforaudits.Underthreatsofantitrustactionbythefederalgovernment,theAICPAwascompelledtoremovetheseprohibitionsagainstcompetitivepractices.Asaresult,competitivebiddinginauditingbecamecommonplace.Thesecondchangeinhowauditswereconductedwasanincreasedemphas

51、ison“ris-basedauditing."-basedauditingisreasonableinthatthelargestamountofauditeffortisplacedonthegreatestareasofauditrisk.Thislogicalideaassumes,however,thatauditorsareexpertsindeterminingtheriskiestareasofacompany'soperations.Unfortunately,asEnronandotherbusinessfailureshavedemonstrated,s

52、omeauditorsarenotsufficientlyabletodeterminewhichareasofacompany'soperationsaresubjecttothegreatestrisks.Inaddition,auditorsusingarisk-basedapproachmightnotdetectfraudulentactivities.Whilethisnewconceptofauditorindependencemaybeappropriateforanauditorincertaincircumstances,toooftenanauditor'

53、seffotosaidmanagementresultedinmisleadingaccountingnumbersthatconcealedtrueeconomicperformance.Duringthe1990s,itappearedthatsomeauditorsneglectedtheirmostimmediateresponsibilitytoactonbehalfofthird-partyinvestorsor,ataminimum,tobeanobjectiveandneutralinterpreterofaccountingstandards.Pre-Sarbanes-Oxl

54、eyProposalstoEnhanceAuditorIndependenceAlegalprohibitionagainstanauditorpossessingafinancialinterestinaclienthasbeenthecornerstoneofauditorindependencerulesintheUnitedStatessincethe1930s.Untilthe1990s,thiswasnotnecessarilytrueintheUnitedKingdomandsomeothercountries,eventhoughprohibitionsagainstholdi

55、ngfinancialinterestsweregenerallyobservedinpracticebecauseofthestandardsoftheaccountinginstitutesandcommonlaw.Currently,aprohibitionagainstauditorspossessingfinancialinterestsinclientsisvirtuallyauniversalprinciple.BoththeSECandthepublicaccountingprofessionhavefocusedmostoftheirattentionregardingaud

56、itorindependenceondefiningandenforcingprohibitionsagainstfinancialinterests.Elaboraterulesandreportingstructureshavebeenformulatedforthepurposeofrevealinganytypeoffinancialinterestonthepartofprofessionalemployeesofaccountingfirms,theirspouses,theirparents,ortheirchildren.ThePCAOBhasadoptedmostofthes

57、erules,withadegreeofrelaxationinareaswheretherulesseemedunreasonable.Rotationofauditappointments.Inseveralcountries(e.g.,Italy)auditorsarepermittedtoauditaclientforonlyaspecifiednumberofyears.ThistypeofregulationhasneverbeenseriouslyconsideredintheU.S.ortheU.K.,althoughSarbanes-Oxleyrequiresthatindivid

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