英語語言學(xué)概論筆記

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上英語語言學(xué)概論課程教學(xué)大綱一、課程說明:語言學(xué)概論課程是英語專業(yè)本科階段的一門必修課。語言學(xué)概論研究始于20世紀初，其目的是揭示人類深層結(jié)構(gòu)，對語言和語言交際作出客觀、科學(xué)描述。現(xiàn)已形成了語音學(xué)、音系學(xué)、形態(tài)學(xué)、句法學(xué)、語義學(xué)、語用學(xué)等一系分支學(xué)科。語言學(xué)研究社會學(xué)等人文學(xué)科的結(jié)合逐步形成了社會語言學(xué)這樣的交叉學(xué)科。對于主修語言學(xué)的學(xué)生來說，了解語言學(xué)的知識和語言理論是完全必要和有益的。本課程的對象是英語專業(yè)高年級學(xué)生，在本科階段第學(xué)期和第學(xué)期開設(shè)。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章為必修，其余章節(jié)為選修。二、教學(xué)目的及要求:本課程的具體要求是：比較全面，系統(tǒng)地

2、了解語言學(xué)概論這一領(lǐng)域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影響的語言理論和原則，從而加深對人類語言這一人類社會普遍現(xiàn)象的理性認識，并具備一定的運用語言學(xué)理論解釋語言現(xiàn)象、解決具體語言問題的能力。本課程是一門知識性比較強的課程。在教學(xué)過程中，應(yīng)重點講授主要理論、原則、和研究方法，使學(xué)生著重掌握基本概念和基本理論，在理解消化的基礎(chǔ)上記憶。本課程的對象是英語專業(yè)學(xué)生，在講解過程中原則上采用英語范例，但不排除一些有助于學(xué)習(xí)者理解的、針對性強的漢語例子。應(yīng)鼓勵學(xué)生結(jié)合自己的語言實踐提供更多的例子來解釋相關(guān)理論，以達到理論和實踐相結(jié)合的目的。三、教學(xué)重點與難點:本課程的教學(xué)重點是語言學(xué)的基本知識和基本理論，語

3、音學(xué)、詞匯學(xué)、句法學(xué)、語義學(xué)和語用學(xué)這些語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容。本課程的教學(xué)難點是音韻學(xué)理論、句法結(jié)構(gòu)和各個語言學(xué)流派的理論觀點及其局限性。四、與其它課程的關(guān)系:本課程是一門主干性課程。與其相關(guān)的課程，如語法學(xué)、詞匯學(xué)和語體學(xué)等都是語言學(xué)的分支，屬于選修課程。五、學(xué)時與學(xué)分:學(xué)時：學(xué)時學(xué)分：學(xué)分六、教學(xué)內(nèi)容：第一章緒論本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1語言學(xué)習(xí)的意義。2語言的定義。3語言的定義特征。4語言的起源。5語言的功能。6語言學(xué)的定義。7語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容。8宏觀語言學(xué)的定義及分支。9語言學(xué)研究中的重要概念區(qū)分。本章教學(xué)目的和要求:本章是全書的緒論。學(xué)習(xí)的目的是認識語言學(xué)的性質(zhì)，以及人類語言的本質(zhì)和特點。要求

4、學(xué)生認知、理解語言學(xué)的的研究對象，語言學(xué)的各個分支，明晰語言學(xué)研究中幾對基本概念的區(qū)別。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.語言定義和區(qū)別性特征。2.語言的功能。3.幾對重要概念的區(qū)分。4.語言的區(qū)別性特征。5.幾對重要概念的區(qū)分。第二章語言聲音本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1發(fā)聲與感知。2發(fā)音器官。3音標。4元音及輔音。5寬式音標窄式音標。6音位理論。7音韻的過程。8區(qū)別性特征。9音節(jié)和重讀的概念及功能作用。本章主要教學(xué)目的及要求:本章的中心是語音，要求對各種發(fā)音器官有所了解。對英語的元音、輔音的描述，分清寬式音標和窄式音標，以及音韻學(xué)的一些基本概念和基本規(guī)律。二本章教學(xué)重點及難點:本章的教學(xué)重點是語音學(xué)的概念及分

5、類，發(fā)音器官，元音及輔音的定義和分類方法，寬式音標和窄式音標，音位理論，區(qū)別性特征，重讀的概念及功能。第三章詞匯一本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1單詞的概念。2構(gòu)詞法。1）詞素和形態(tài)學(xué)。2）詞素類型。3）曲折變化和單詞構(gòu)成。4）音韻學(xué)和形態(tài)學(xué)的對照。3詞匯變遷。二本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章要求了解語素這個概念；掌握英語常見的構(gòu)詞法；了解詞匯的歷史變遷。三本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1詞素的概念和詞素的類型、曲折變化、詞匯的變遷。2詞素的概念、詞素變體、詞語的三層含義和音韻學(xué)與形態(tài)學(xué)的對照。第四章句法學(xué)本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1傳統(tǒng)語法包括數(shù)、格等語法范疇。2結(jié)構(gòu)主義語法。3生成語法（可結(jié)合附錄中有關(guān)生成語法的內(nèi)容）。4功

6、能語法。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章從傳統(tǒng)語法、結(jié)構(gòu)主義語法、生成語法和功能主義語法四個角度闡述了句法學(xué)的主要內(nèi)容。要求學(xué)生了解這四種方法的具體內(nèi)容以及一些重要的概念，并深刻認識到語言的語法體系是一套高度抽象自律性規(guī)則系統(tǒng)、句子的線性與層次性、深層結(jié)構(gòu)與表層結(jié)構(gòu)等關(guān)系。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:傳統(tǒng)語法中的數(shù)、格、性時態(tài)和語態(tài)、結(jié)構(gòu)語法中的直接成分分析法和向心結(jié)構(gòu)、離心結(jié)構(gòu)、生成語法中的深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)。第五章意義本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1意義的意義。2所指理論。3意義關(guān)系。4成分分析。5句子意義。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章對意義進行研究。要求學(xué)生對幾種主要的對意義研究的途徑有所了解。明析詞匯與詞匯之間和句子

7、與句子之間的關(guān)系，了解近代語言學(xué)中對詞義研究的重要方法。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:本章的教學(xué)重點是：所指理論、意義關(guān)系和成分分析。本章的教學(xué)難點是：所指理論和成分分析。句子意義這一部分內(nèi)容可用于補充閱讀材料。第七章語言、文化、社會本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1.語言與文化的關(guān)系。1)語言和文化如何關(guān)聯(lián)。2)薩皮爾-沃夫假說。3)個案研究。4)文化在語言學(xué)研究中的地位。5)文化在語言課堂教學(xué)中的作。6.語言與社會的關(guān)系和社會語言學(xué)。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章重點教授語言和文化、社會的關(guān)系，使學(xué)生對語言現(xiàn)象以及附帶的社會、文化內(nèi)涵產(chǎn)生興趣，并了解一些相關(guān)的理論。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.薩皮爾-沃夫假說、文化在語言課

8、堂教學(xué)中的作用、社會語言學(xué)的定義和研究范圍、社會語言學(xué)的應(yīng)用。2.薩皮爾-沃夫假說、文化在語言課堂中的作用及社會語言學(xué)的概念。第八章語言使用本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1.言語行為理論。2.會話含義理論。3.其他理論。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章重點講授語用學(xué)的概念和著名的語用學(xué)理論、原則和研究成果。要求學(xué)生對這些理論、原則有初步的了解，并能用來解釋一些生活中語言現(xiàn)象。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.諺語行為理論、言內(nèi)行為、言外行為、言后行為、合作原則、會話含義。2.言語行為理論、違反合作原則所產(chǎn)生的會話含義。本章的第三部分作為補充材料供學(xué)生課外閱讀。第十一章語言學(xué)與語言教學(xué)本章主要教學(xué)內(nèi)容:1.語言學(xué)和外語教學(xué)的

9、關(guān)系。2不同的觀點、理論對外語教學(xué)的影響。3大綱的制訂。4.語言學(xué)習(xí)。5.錯誤分析。6.測試。本章教學(xué)目的及要求:本章的中心內(nèi)容是語言學(xué)和外語教學(xué)的關(guān)系，介紹了影響外語教學(xué)的幾種語言學(xué)理論和實踐教學(xué)活動中常見的問題及對應(yīng)策略，要求學(xué)生了解基本理論、掌握分析、測試的基本方法。建議師范類本科學(xué)生此章作為必修。本章教學(xué)重點及難點:1.各種語言學(xué)理論在語言教學(xué)中的指導(dǎo)作用、交際能力理論、教學(xué)大綱的制定、語言學(xué)習(xí)中的輸入和中介語的產(chǎn)生、錯誤分析的步驟和方法、兩種不同的測試方法、測試類型和要求、測試內(nèi)容和形式。2.結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)在語言教學(xué)中的作用、轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學(xué)的理論觀點、功能語言學(xué)在語言教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用。C

10、hapter1InvitationtoLinguistics1.DefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.Disignfeatures:Definition:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication2.1ArbitrarinessDefinition:Thereisnologicalcon

11、nectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Ontheotherhand,languageisnotentirelyarbitrarya. onomatopoeticwords(rumble,bang,crash)compoundwords(photocopy)b. atthesyntacticlevel,thereisacertaindegreeofcorrespondencebetweenthesequenceofclausesandtherealhappening.Forexample,Hecameinandsatdo

12、wn.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.c. convention:thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention2.2DualityDefinition:Dualitymeansthepropertiesofhavingthelevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownpr

13、inciplesoforganization Theterm”human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific Discussthesaying“Languageishuman-specific”.Inotherwords,whatmakeslanguagedifferentfromanimalssystemofcommunication.Forexample,thebearsdancing. Languageisasystem,whichconsistsof2setsofstructures.Atthelowerorbasiclevelth

14、ereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargernumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem. Soundswordsphrasessentences Thelowestlevelconsistsofdozensofbitsofmeaninglesssoundswhichoccurinchumpsthatwecallsyllables.2

15、.3Creativity(Productivity)Definition:Languageiscreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thethree-leggedwhitemonkeysleptonthebedofthekingofFrance.Gibboncalls-alimitedrepertoireBeedancing-onlytoindicatefoodsources2.4DisplacementDefinition:Languagecanbeusedtor

16、efertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker. Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication. Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,ori

17、nfar-awayplaces2.5CulturalTransmissionDefinition:Languageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.Thedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedbyeachspeaker.2.6InterchangeabilityDefinition:Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.3.FunctionsofLang

18、uage1)InformativefunctionThisfunctionisthemajorroleoflanguage.“Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontext:thatis,ofthespeakersexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness”(Halliday)2)InterpersonalfunctionThisisthesocialuseoflanguageThroughlanguagepeopleestablishandmaintaintheirs

19、tatusinasociety.“Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrules,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself”(Halliday)Theinterpersonalfunctionoflanguageisthefunctionofexpressingidentity.3)Performativefunction(Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage)LanguageisusedtodothingsThisperformativefunctiono

20、flanguageistochangethesocialstatusofpersons.Forexample,inmarriageceremony,thesentencingofcriminals,thenamingofaship4)EmotivefunctionLanguageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Forexample:ejaculationssuchas”Goodheavens”;“myGod”;”Imextremelysorryaboutit”Itisusedtochangethee

21、motionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itcanbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers5)PhaticcommunionItreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.Whenlanguageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas,it

22、fulfillsthephaticfunction.Forexample:farewells,commentsontheweather,greetingsMalinowski(馬林諾夫斯基)thesocialinteractionoflanguage.Itistomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.Eg.Ritualexchangesabouthealthandweather6）RecreationalfunctionTheuseoflanguageisfortheshee

23、rjoyofusingit.EgVerbalduelingPoetrywriting1. Linguistics§ 1.1Definition§ 1.2Majorbranchesoflinguistics§ 1.3Macrolinguistics§ 1.4Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics§ 1.1Definition§ Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.§ Ittriestoanswerthefollowingquestions:§

24、; Whatislanguage?§ Howdoeslanguagework?§ Explanation:§ “Scientific”meansthatitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.§ “Study”meansinvestigation.§ “Language”meanslanguagesingeneral,thatis,linguisticsst

25、udiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.§ 1.2Majorbranchesoflinguistics§ 1.2.1Phonetics§ Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareprodudced,transmitted,andperceived.Itincludesthreeparts:§ Articulatoryphonetics§ Acousticphonetics§ Auditoryphonetics§ 1.2.2Phonol

26、ogy§ Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.§ Phonemeisthedepartingpointofthephonologicalstudy.Itisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Forexample,pin,bin,tin,din-/p,b,t,d/arephonemeswhichcandistinguishmeaningsofthesewords.§ Thenwh

27、atistherelationbetweenphoneticsandphonology?ThinkaboutthisquestionandwewilldiscussitinChapter2.§ 1.2.3Morphology§ Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.§ Morphemesarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsinalanguage.§ 1.2.4Syntax§ Syntaxisthestudyo

28、ftherulesgoverningthewayswordsarecombinedintosentencesinalanguage.§ Wordsareorganizedintostructuresmorethanjustwordorder,e.g.,§ A.Thechildrenwatchedthefireworkfromthehill.§ B.Thechildrenwatchedthefireworkfromthehill.§ 1.2.5Semantics§ Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.§ Itstu

29、diesthemeaningsoflinguisticunitswithoutconcerningtheinfluenceofthecontextofsituation,i.e.,itstudiesthede-contextualizedmeaning.§ 1.2.6Pragmatics§ Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.(Thenwhatisthedifferencebetweensemanticsandpragmatics?)§ Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisus

30、edtocommunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisinternallystructured§ 1.3Macrolinguisticsaninterdisciplinarynature§ Itconcernswiththerelationbetweenlanguageandotherdisciplineswhicharealsopreoccupiedwithlanguage,forexample,psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,computati

31、onallinguistics,neurolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,etc.§ 1.4Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics§ 1.4.1Descriptivevs.Prescriptive§ Examples:§ 1.a)ItisI.§ b)Itisme.§ 2.a)Whodidyouspeakto?§ b)Whomdidyouspeakto?§ 3.a)Ihaventdoneanything.§ b)Ihaventdonenothing

32、§ DescriptiveThelinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.§ Prescriptivethelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay.§ Descriptiveexplanationsofthethreeexamples:

33、67; 1)TheLatinruleisnotuniversal.InEnglish,“me”isinformaland“I”isfelttobeveryformal.§ 2)“Whom”isusedinformalspeechandinwriting,and“who”ismoreacceptableininformalspeech.§ 3)Languagedosenothavetofollowlogicalreasoning.Heretwonegativesin3b)onlymakeamoreemphaticnegative.Thissentenceisnotaccept

34、ableinStandardEnglishnotbecauseitisillogicalbutbecauselanguagechangesandrejectsthisusagenow.§ Tosumup:§ Prescriptive:Do/DontsayX.§ Descriptive:Peopledo/dontsayX.§ Ifadescriptivegrammarofanon-prestigevarietyofEnglishwerewritten,itmightshow,forexample,thatspeakersofthisvarietysaid:

35、§ Iseenim.forIsawhim.§ imnmedoneit.forHeandIdidit.§ 1.4.2Synchronicvs.Diachronic§ SwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(CourseinGeneralLinguistics,1916):“SYNCHRONIC”,inwhichlanguagesaretreatedasself-containedsystemsofcommunicationatanyparticulartime,and“DIACHRONIC”,inwhichthechangesto

36、whichlanguagesaresubjectinthecourseoftimearetreatedhistorically(Robins,1967:200).§ Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.§ Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy(ShakespearesEnglish)§ Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(

37、ahistoricalstudythehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime).Time1DescriptionofthesoundsystemofEarlyEnglishSynchronicstudy§ descriptionofchangesdiachronic§ betweenthetwosystemsstudyTime2DescriptionofthesoundsystemofModernEnglishSynchronicstudy§ 1.4.3Langue&Parole§ Sau

38、ssuredistinguishedtheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsasLangueandParole.§ Langueisnotcompleteinanyindividualspeaker;itexistsperfectlyonlywithinacollectivity§ Inseparatinglanguefromparoleweareatthesametimeseparating§

39、 1)whatissocialfromwhatisindividual;and§ 2)whatisessentialfromwhatisaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.§ Whichoneshouldlinguistsstudy?LangueorParole?§ Langue1)thesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby;2)abstract,notthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse;3)relativelystable,does

40、notchangefrequently.§ Parole1)theconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;2)concrete,thenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents;3)variesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.§ 1.4.4Competencevs.performance§ AmericanlinguistNoamChomsky(AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,1965)&#

41、167; Competencetheidealusersunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesofhislanguage§ Performancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinconcretesituation§ Chomskypointsoutthatthetaskofalinguististodeterminefromthedataofperformancetheunderlyingsystemofrulesthathasbeenmasteredbythelanguageuser.&#

42、167; Chomskysdistinctionofcompetenceandperformanceisrelatedtothelangue-paroledistinctionofSaussure,buttherearesomedifferencesbetweenthem,whatarethey?§ WhatisthedifferencebetweenSaussureandChomsky?§ Saussureasociologicalviewoflanguage(Langueisamatterofsocialconventions.)§ Chomskyapsych

43、ologicalview(Competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.)§ Whichoneshouldbestudied?§ LangueorParole?CompetenceorPerformance?§ Arguments:§ Therearemanyreasonsforthediscrepancybetweencompetenceandperformanceinnormallanguageusers.Someofthemareethnicbackground,socioeconomicstatus

44、,andregionsofthecountry;somearethefactorsasphysicalstatechangeswithintheindividual,intoxication,fatigue,distraction,andillness.SotherehavebeensomeargumentsonChomskysthinkingthat§ “Linguistictheoryisconcernedprimarilywithanidealspeaker-listener,inacompletelyhomogeneousspeechcommunity,whoknowsits

45、languageperfectly”.§ DellHymesstudieslanguagefromasocio-culturalviewpointandproposed“communicativecompetence”speakersvarytheirperformancenotatrandombutinaregularway(thepragmaticabilityoflanguageuse).Chapter2SpeechSoundsPhoneticsPhonologyI.Phonetics1.1DefinitionPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsare

46、produced,transmittedandperceived;itisconcernedwiththesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.1.2ThreeAreasofPhonetics1.Articulatoryphoneticsthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphoneticsthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechsounds3.Auditoryphoneticsthestudyoftheperceptionof

47、speechsounds.1.3Speechorgans(vocalorgans)1.speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.2.Theyarecontainedinthreeareas:1)thepharyngealcavitythethroat2)theoralcavitythemouth3)thenasalcavitythenose3.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinvariousways.1.31T

48、hepharyngealcavity1.Airstreamfromthelungswindpipeglottis2.Vocalcordsaretwotissues.Whentheyarefoldedback,airpassesfreelyandsilently;whentheyheldtogether,airvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassagethroughthem;whentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassthroughthemandthenreleasetheairstreamsuddenly.

49、1.32Theoralcavity1.Theoralcavitycontainstheuvula,thesoftpalate(thevelum),thehardpalate,theteethridge(thealveolus),theteeth,thelips,andthetongue.2.Inphonetics,thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:thetip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.3.Inphonology,thesoundsmadewiththesepartsofthetongueareoftenreferre

50、dtoasCoronal,DorsalandRadical.1.4ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSounds1.41VowelsVowelsareproducedwhentheairstreammeetswithnoobstruction.1.42ConsonantsConsonantsaresoundsproducedbyobstructingtheflowofairintheoralcavity.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream,thatis,wheth

51、erthereisa“stricture”intheproductionofthesound.1.43Classificationofconsonants1.Theproductionofconsonantsatleastinvolvestwoarticulators.2.Twowaysofclassification:1)Mannerofarticulation:therelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.3.Threemajormann

52、ersofarticulation:a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.2)Placesofarticulation:whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.背書P35并熟悉下面出題

53、方式。1.44Vowels1.44.1Cardinalvowels1.ThecardinalvowelswereinventedbyDanielJones,describingthevowelsinanylanguage.Thecardinalvowelsthemselvesdonotbelongtoanyparticularlanguage,butaretobeusedasareferencepoint(參照點)Thecardinalvowelsareabstractconceptsandnotbelongtoanylanguage.Definition:areasetofvowelqual

54、itiesarbitrarydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguagesP28書2.Schwa:theneutralvowel3.The16cardinalvowelsaresub-dividedinto8primaryand8secondarycardinalvowels.Inthediagram,wheneverthereisapairofsymbolstogether,thesoundsonlydiffer

55、withrespecttolipposture,withtheleftsymbolbeingunroundedandtherightsymbolbeingrounded.4.Thecardinalvowelsareabstractconcept.Theyrepresentextremepointsofatheoreticalvowelspace:extendingthearticulatorsbeyondthisspacewouldinvolvefrictionorcontact(consonants)5.Semi-vowels:Theoretically,anysegmentmustbeei

56、theravoweloraconsonant;buttherearesomeproblemswithhjwMonophthongvowels:thequalityofvowelsremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationVowelGlides:thequalityofvowelshasanaudiblechangeVowelGlidesarefurtherdividedinto“diphthongs”Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalledDiphthongsandthe“triph

57、thongs”,ifthereis“aglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption”1.45TheEnglishVowels1.ThefourbasicrequirementforthedescriptionofEnglishvowels:Theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)Thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)Thelengthortensenessofth

58、evowel(tensevslax)Lip-rounding(roundedvsunrounded)2.Diacritics:areadditionalsymbolsormarksusedtogetherwiththeconsonantandvowelsymbolstoindicatenuancesofchangeintheirpronunciation.背P36書上圖IIFromPhoneticstoPhonology2.1CoarticulationDefinition:Whenaspeechsoundchanges,andbecomesmorelikeanothersoundwhichfollowsitorprecedesit,thisiscalledcoarticulation.AnticipatoryCoarticulation:asoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound.Eg:lambPerseverativeCoarticulation:thesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsoundEg:map2.2PhoneticTranscriptions