語言學知識點+整理

1、第 一 單 元 Whatislinguistics?什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics語言學研究的范疇Phonetics 語音學 Phonology音系學 Morphology形態(tài)學 Syntax句法學 Semantics語義學 Pragmatics語用學 Sociolinguistics社會語言學 Psycholin

2、guistics心理語言學 Applied linguistics應用語言學Phonetics語 音 學 ： thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication led to the establishment of a branch of linguisticscalled phoneticsPhonology音系學 :aslinguistsbecameinterestedinhowsoundsput together and used to convey meaning in communication ,theydevelopedanotherbr

3、anchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.Morphology形態(tài)學 :the studyof the way in which these symbolsare arranged form words has constituted the branch of study calledmorphology.Syntax句法學 :the combination of these words to form permissiblesentences in languagesis governed by rules ,thestudy of theseru

4、les constitutes a major branch oflinguistics studiesSemantics語義學 :the study of meaning wasgraduallydevelopedand became known as semanticsPragmatics語用學 :when the study of meaning is conducted,not inisolaion,butinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistic

5、s社會語言學 :the study of all these social aspects oflanguage and its relation with society form the core of the branchcalled sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理語言學 : Psycholinguistics relates the study oflanguage to psychologyAppliedlinguistics應用語言學 :findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoften be applied to the

6、 solution of such practical problems as therecovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOtherrelatedbranchsincludeanthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputational linguistics.Some important distinctions

7、in linguistics 。人類學 / 神經語言學 / 數理語言學 / 計算語言學1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive規(guī)定性與描述性Descriptive ： a linguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for“ correct.” behaviorModern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, a

8、nd mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on“ high ” written l2.Synchronic vs. diachronic共時性與歷史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics,

9、synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.3.Speech and writing口頭語與書面語Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in wri

10、ting(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language4.Language and parole語言與言語Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual use5.Competence and performance能力與運用Chomsky defin

11、es competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules oflanguagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是語言？ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language:語言的特性Language is a rule-

12、governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have differentwords for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is wellillustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare s playand J

13、uliet ” : “ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language語言的甄別特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武斷性2) productivity 創(chuàng)造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement 移位性5) cultural transmission文化傳遞性單元二

14、 Two major media of communication: speech and writingThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationand are of interestto linguisticstudiesare the1phonic medium of language.用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數目有限的一組語音構成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics 語音學 : is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; i

15、t is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s language.Three branchesof phonetics: articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學（ most highly developed ） , auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學 andacoustic phonetics聲學語音學Articulation phonetics(發(fā)音語音學 ):How a speaker uses his speechorgans articulate the sounds.Auditory

16、 phonetics （聽覺語音學） :How ahearer perceivesthesounds.Acoustic( 聲學語音學） :How the sounds are transmitter .Organs of speech發(fā)音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in threeimportant areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 -the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 -the mouthThe nasal cavity鼻腔 -t

17、he noseVibration of the vocal cords (聲帶 ) results ina quality of speechsounds called“ voicing濁音， which” is a feature of all vowels元音and some consonants輔音。單詞補充：01) velum: The soft palate.軟腭2) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的

18、圓錐狀肉塊3) larynx: n. 喉4) vocal cord: 聲帶05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separatingor connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant.膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結構或動植物器官6) the soft palate: 軟腭7) the hard palate: 硬腭08) the teeth ridge:齒齦09) alveolus: A

19、 tooth socket in the jawbone牙槽顎骨處的牙床10) the teeth: 牙齒11) the lips: 上下唇12) blade of tongue: 舌面13) back of tongue: 舌根14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup. 軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如

20、在good 中的(g) 以及在cup 中的 (k)17) the tip of the tongue:舌尖18) the upper front teeth:上齒19) the roof of the mouth:上顎20) the lower lip:下唇但實際上，同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同，比如Pit 和 spit 中的 /P/ 音發(fā)音就不一樣。在寬式標音的基礎上，再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標音法叫做窄式標音法。Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類vowels andconstantsThe b

21、asic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in thepronunciationof theformerthe airthat comes from the lungsmeets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, orthe mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way oranother .Consonants: the sounds in the productio

22、n of whichthere isan obstructionof theair steam atsome pointof the vocal tract.Vowels: the sounds in the productionofwhichnoarticulators come very close together and the airstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.Classification of English constantsClassificationintwoways:intermsofmannerof

23、articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricates ,nasals ,liquids ,glides.:intermsofplaceofarticulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar ,glottal.International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs)元音（單元音 &雙元音）The constants 輔音Broad transcription: transcription w

24、ithletter-symbols only. (indictionaries and teaching textbooks)用一個符號來表示一個語音的標音方式叫做寬式標音法，這種音標法常見于詞典和教科書。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低 (classification of3 groups:front,central,and back):theopennessof

25、themouth, 口的張 開程度 (classificationof42groups:close vowels,semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels):the shape of the lips園唇與否 (rounded or not rounded):length of the vowels 元 音 的 長 度 (long vowels and short vowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels)contrast.可以出現(xiàn)在不同語音組合中的

26、同一為止，產生意義差別。/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, thetwo words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben最小對立

27、對指出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Phonology and phonetics音系學和語音學 both are the studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.語音學研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進行描述和分類。Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular lan

28、guage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaningin linguistic communication.音系學研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達意義作用。Phone ，phoneme and allophone 語音，音位，音位變體 Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a lang

29、uage.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對rope and robe that /P/

30、and /b/ can occur in the same environmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning;thereforetheyarein phonemicSome rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則Sequential rules序列規(guī)則：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki,ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則（ one sound to another by “ copying a ” feature of a se

31、quential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar） Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則（ it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. ）Sign, design, there is nog sound./Signature, designation the g is pronounced./ Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Supras

32、egmental features: the phonemic features that occur abovethe level of the segments .切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation.超切分特征 重音，聲調，語調第三單元 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed

33、. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.形態(tài)學研究單詞的內部結構以及構詞規(guī)則，有屈折形態(tài)學和詞匯形態(tài)學兩大分支Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.語素：語言最小的意義單位Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.(independent)Freemorphemes:areindepend

34、entunitsofmeaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example:boy.Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand byitself. 粘 著語素 必 須 和其他 語素 結合 成單 詞 cannotbe usedindependentlybut have to be combinedwithothermorphemes,either free or bound, to form a word.Roots: A root is often see

35、n as a part of a word, it can never standby itself although itbears clear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots3are numerous in English for example: geo-“ bears the meaning of“ the earth” . When it combines with another root - ology ” meaning “ abr

36、anch oflearningwe” , gotthe word“ geology which” means“ the study of the earth s structureBound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(詞綴 )1)Inflectionalaffixes( 屈 折 詞 綴 )(inflectionalmorphemes):Inflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalrelations orgrammatical categories such as number,

37、tense, degree, and case.affixes attached tothe endof wordsto indicategrammaticalrelationships are inflectional2)Derivational affixes( 派生詞綴 ) Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation i

38、s called a derivative.A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix ： that is added to the stem；they modify the meaning ofthe original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Root and stem （詞根和詞干）( 本書未涉及 )1) Root 2) StemThe differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a w

39、ord which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic UndesirablesIndividualist (stem) undesirable (stem)Ind

40、ividual (stem) desirable (stem)dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)divide(root, stem)Affixation 詞綴法（ Derivation 派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation 前綴 ： Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify th

41、e meaning ofthe stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Compounding復合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the fo

42、rmation of new words by joining two or more stems .Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to formnew words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than tw

43、o words to create new words.Features of compounds1.orthographically( 拼寫特征 ): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair , follow-up, thunder bird.2.syntactically( 句法特征 ): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the

44、 part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).3.sematically （語意特征） : the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a legthat is black, it means che

45、ater4.phonetically （語音特征） : the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.單元四 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.As a major component of grammar , syntax consists of a set of abstract ru

46、les that allow words to be combined with other words toform grammatical sentences.句法是一個由一套數量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構成。謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構成。The referring expression is grammatically call

47、ed subject.主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。 Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicateTypes

48、 of sentences 句子的類型The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.簡單句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子The coordinate sentence or compound sentence: containstwoclauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并4列句含由連接詞串聯(lián)起來的兩

49、個句子成分The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses,one ofwhich is incorporated into the other.The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, onesubordinatingtheother .復合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成，其中之一為主要子句，其余為從屬子句。 a complex sentence containstwo, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated in

50、to another. Thatis, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinated, clauseis normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which itis embedded is called matrix clause.Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sent

51、ence.1. anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.2.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator, suchas “ thatif” ”,”.3.anemb eddedclausemaynotfunctionasa grammaticallywell-formedsentence if itstands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.Languageisa highlystructuredsystemof communication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomly(隨意 )combininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of wordsnotonlymeaningfulbu