2023年語言學知識點總結胡壯麟版

Cｈapteｒ４4.１sｙｎtactic（句法的)rｅｌaｔｉoｎs４.1.1ｐoｓitiｏｎalrelａt(yī)ioｎ(位置關系)Ｆorｌanguagｅtofulfｉｌlitscommuｎｉcativeｆunction,ｉtmｕsthavｅａwaytomarkthegｒammatiｃaｌroｌｅsofｔheｖａrｉouｓphrａｓethatcanoccurinacｌaｕse．Positｉｏｎａｌreｌａt(yī)ionｏrwoｒdorｄerreferstｏtheseｑｕential(有序的)aｒrａｎgemeｎｔｏfwordsinalanｇｕage.Posiｔiｏnａｌrelａt(yī)ionareaｍanifesｔaｔion（表現(xiàn))ofonｅaspｅctofsyntaｇmatｉｃrｅlatioｎsWｏrｄorderiｓamongtｈｅthｒｅeｂasicｗays(woｒｄordergeｎｅticandclassificａt(yī)ioｎ）ｔｏclassｉfｙlａnｇuａgeｗｏｒｄs．ＳixpoｓsiｂlｅtypeｓoflａｎguａgeＳVOVSOSＯVOVSＶOSEｎgliｓhｉｓＳVO.４.1．2rｅlaｔioｎｏfsubstｉｔutabiｌity(可代替性)Firｓｔlyrelatｉonｏｆsubsｔitｕtabｉlityrｅfeｒｓtoclasseｓorsetｓofwoｒｄssubstitutabｌeｏfeaｃhotheｒgrammatiｃaｌlyiｎsｅntｅncewiththeｓamestruｃｔure.Ｓecondｌyiｔreferstｏｇroupｓofｍorethanｏｎｅwｏrｄｗｈiｃhmａｙbｅｊｏｉｎtlｙsｕｂstitｕtablｅgrammａt(yī)iｃalｌｙｆorasinｇlewordoｆapａrtｉｃularset.ThｉsｉｓｗhaｔSａussurｅcalledassociative(聯(lián)想的)rｅlａｔiｏｎsorinHｊemslev’spａｒadigmatic（縱聚性的)relａt(yī)ioｎ．4．１.3rｅlationofcｏ-occurrence（共現(xiàn)）Meansｗordsoｆdifｆｅｒeｎｔseｔsofcｌauseｓmaypｅrmitprｒｅquirｅｔheocｃurｒenceｏfawｏrｄofanothersetorclasstｏfｒｏｍasｅntenｃeoraparｔｉculａrpartofaｓenｔencｅ.Tｈｕsｒｅｌａｔｉｏnｓoｆco-occｕrrｅnceparｔlｙbelｏngtｏsyntagmatiｃrａt(yī)ionspartlytｏｐaraｄiｇｍaticｒelations．4.2ｇｒamｍaticalcoｎｓtructioｎaｎditｓcｏnsｔituents4．2.1ＧｒammaticalcoｎstructｉｏnAnysyntaｃtｉcstrinｇｏfwordsｒangingfromsentencesoｖerphｒaｓｅsstructuresｔocertaincomplｅxlexｅｍｅs（詞位)4.2.2iｍmedｉａt(yī)ecoｎstitｕents(直接成分)S

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ThegirlatetheappleTｈisistreｅdiagram.在句子結構分析中，成分用來指任何語言單位，而該單位又是更大語言單位的一部分，如在Thｅｇirlａｔｅtheａｐplｅ自身的（A)tｈeboy（Ｂ)atetheapｐｌｅ（C)都是一個成分，成分可以和其他成分組合組成更大的單位，假如兩個成分B(thｅbｏy)C（ａt(yī)ethｅａpple)結合起來形成一個更高的成分ＡWord-ｌｅvelＮ＝nｏunA＝aｄjｅｃtiveＶ=vｅｒbＰ=ｐrｅpositionDet=determinerAdｖ=ａｄverbConｊ=conjｕnctｉｏnＰhｒaｓalＮP=nｏunｐhｒａseAＰ＝adjｅctiｖephｒａｓeVP=ｖerｂphｒaｓePP=ｐrｅpositionphraseＳ=senｔenｃeorclａuseTodisｍantleａgraｍmaｔicalｃonｓtｒｕcturｅｉsthisｗａyｉsｃallediｍmedｉaｔｅconｓtｉtuｅｎtｓoｒＩCａnalｙsｉs.Bracketｉnｇisnotａｓcｏmｍoｎｉnuse，ｂutitiｓaneconomicnｏtaｔiｏｎｉnrepresｅntｉngtｈecｏｎｓtiｔｕent/pｈrａseｓtｒuctuｒeofagｒaｍｍatｉｃaｌunit.(((Tｈe)(girl))

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(（ｔｈe)(apple））))2.3EndｏｃeｎtricandExocｅｎｔricConsｔｒｕctｉｏnsEndocentricconstｒuctｉoｎisonewｈosｅdiｓtｒibuｔioｎisfunctiｏnａｌlyeqｕiｖalenttotｈａt(yī)oｆｏｎeormorｅofitscoｎstｉｔuｅnts,ｉ.e.,aｗoｒdorａｇrｏupoｆwｏrｄｓ,ｗｈichservｅｓasａdｅfinablecｅntreoｒhｅad.Ｕｓualｌｙnounphraｓeｓ,verbｐhrasｅsandａｄjecｔivepｈraｓeｓbｅloｎgtoendocｅntrｉctypｅsbecaｕsｅｔhｅconsｔiｔuentitemsａresubordinaｔetｏtheHｅad．4.２.３.ＥｎdｏcentｒicａndExoｃentricＣonstructions4.２.3.1Ｅndｏceｎtｒic(相信結構）Ｅnｄoceｎtriｃcｏnsｔructioｎｉsonewｈoseｄisｔｒibutionｉsfｕnctionallyeqｕivaｌｅnttoｔhaｔofｏneormoｒeｏfｉｔｓcoｎsｔｉtuents,i.ｅ.,awｏrdoragrｏupoｆｗordｓ,whichsｅｒvesaｓadeｆinaｂｌｅcenｔreorhead.Usuallynoｕnphrasｅs,veｒbpｈrasesandａdjecｔiｖepｈrasｅsbｅｌongtoenｄoｃeｎtrｉctｙpesbeｃaｕsetｈeconstituentitemｓａｒesｕborｄiｎａt(yī)etoｔheＨead.４.2.3．1Exocｅntric（并列結構）Ｅxoｃeｎtrｉcconstrｕctiｏｎrｅfｅrstoaｇrｏupofsｙnｔacｔicalｌｙrelatedwordｓwｈerenｏneｏftｈｅwｏｒdsｉsfunctionalｌyequivaleｎtｔothｅｇroupasaｗhoｌe,thaｔis,ｔheｒeisnｏdefinabｌｅ“Cenｔｒe”or“Head”insｉｄetheｇroup,usuallｙｉncｌudｉngthebasiｃsｅnｔｅnce,thｅpreｐositionalphrase,ｔhepredｉｃaｔe（verb+object)coｎstｒuｃｔion,andtｈｅｃonnectivｅ(be+compｌemenｔ）ｃonstｒuctｉoｎ.2.4Cooｒdｉnａt(yī)ｉｏnandSubｏrdinaｔionEnｄoceｎtriccｏnstructionsfａllintotwomaｉntypes，depeｎｄingｏntherelａt(yī)ｉoｎbｅtwｅencｏnsｔituentｓ:Cｏｏｒdinatiｏn(并列）isａｃomｍoｎsyntａctｉｃｐａt(yī)ｔｅrｎinEnglｉsｈａnｄotheｒlaｎguagesｆoｒｍedｂygrｏupinｇtogｅｔhertｗoormoｒecａt(yī)eｇoriｅsｏｆthesametypewithtｈehelpｏfａcoｎjuncｔionsucｈaｓaｎd，bｕｔanｄor.CｏordinatiｏnｏfNPs:［NPthｅlａdy]or［NPthetiger]Coorｄinａt(yī)ionofVＰs:［VPgotothｅlibrａrｙ]and[VPｒeａdａbook］Coordinａt(yī)ｉonofPＰs:[PPdｏｗｎthｅｓtaiｒｓ］and[PPoutｔhedoor］ＣoｏｒdｉnaｔiｏnofＡＰs：[APquiｔｅｅxpensiｖe]anｄ[ＡPveｒｙbeauｔifuｌ]CoorｄinatioｎofSs:［SJohnloveｓMａｒy]ａｎd[SMarylｏｖeｓJohｎtoo].Suｂorｄｉnaｔion（從屬)ｒeferstｏｔhｅｐrｏceｓｓorreｓultoflｉnｋinglinguｉｓticunitssothａt(yī)tｈeyｈａvediffｅrenｔsyntａｃticｓtaｔus,oｎebeiｎgdeｐendenｔｕpontｈeoｔｈer，anｄｕsuaｌｌyaconstitｕentoftｈeotheｒ.Ｔｈesｕborｄｉｎatｅconｓｔituentsarewoｒｄｓwhicｈｍodiｆｙｔhｅheａd.Conｓequｅntｌy,theｙcanbecallｅdmoｄifiｅrs.Ｃlauｓescaｎbeusedasｓｕborｄinateconstｉtuents.Ｔherearｅthreｅbaｓictyｐesofsubｏrdinaｔeclauｓes:4.3.Ｓyｎｔacｔic(句法)FuｎctionThｅsyntactｉcfunctionｓhowsｔhｅrelationshipｂｅtweeｎalinguisticｆormａndｏtheｒparｔｓoftheｌiｎguｉsticｐaｔｔernｉnwｈicｈitisuｓed.Namｅsoffｕnctionsareｅxpｒessedinteｒｍｓｏfsubjeｃts,obｊects,pｒｅｄiｃaｔｏrｓ,modifiers，compｌemｅnts，etc.4.3.1SubjecｔIｎＥngｌｉsh,ｔhesｕbｊｅctofaseｎtenceisofｔensaidtoｂethｅａgent,orｔhedoerｏｆtheactｉon，whｉletｈeｏbjectisｔheperｓｏnorthingaｃteduponbythｅageｎt．Inorｄertoａccｏuntfｏrtｈｅcaseofｓｕbjectinpaｓsiｖevoice,weｈavetｗooｔｈerterms“gｒammaticalｓubjeｃt”ａnｄ“l(fā)ogｉcalｓubject”ＷorｄｏrｄeｒSubjectorｄinarilｙｐrｅceｄｅstheverｂｉntheｓtatｅment:Pro-forｍsThefｉｒsｔａnｄｔhirdpersｏｎprｏｎｏunsinEnｇlishapｐｅarinaspｅｃialfｏｒｍwheｎthｅpronouｎisaｓｕbject，whｉchiｓnotuｓedwhenｔｈｅprｏnouｎｏccｕrｓinｏtherposiｔions:AgrｅemeｎｔwitｈtheverbＩｎthｅsimplepresenｔｔense,aｎ-sisadｄedtoｔｈｅverbwhｅnａｔhirdperｓoｎsubjectissｉｎgular,buｔｔhenumbeｒandpeｒｓonofｔheoｂjectｏranｙotｈeｒelemeｎtintｈeｓeｎｔeｎcehaveｎoeｆfｅｃtatalloｎthｅfｏrmoftｈeverｂＣoｎtentｑuｅｓｔiｏｎｓIftheｓubｊecｔｉsreｐlacedｂyaｑｕestionwｏrd(whoｏrwhat),theｒestｏfthｅsｅnｔeｎceｒemainsunｃｈａnged，asｉn4.4Ｃateｇorｙ(范疇)Thetermcatｅgｏｒｙreferstｏｔhｅdefｉｎiｎｇproｐｅrtiｅsofｔｈｅｓegｅneｒalｕｎiｔs:Cａｔｅｇoriesofthenoun:number,genｄer,caseaｎdcoｕntａbｉｌityCatｅｇorｉｅsｏftｈｅverｂ：ｔense,aspect,ｖｏice4.4.1NumberNumbｅrｉsａｇramｍatiｃａlcatｅgoｒyｕｓedｆorthｅａnalｙsｉsofwoｒdclassesｄiｓｐlayｉngsuchcontrastsassｉngular,duａl,plｕral，eｔc．4.4.2Gende(性）Ｓuchcoｎtrastsaｓ“ｍaｓcｕｌiｎe:feｍｉnine:nｅuteｒ”,“aniｍaｔｅ:inａnimate”,ｅｔc.ｆｏｒtｈeanaｌyｓisoｆwｏrdｃlasｓeｓ.4.4.3Caｓe（格）Tｈecaｓeｃａt(yī)egoｒｙｉsusedinｔheａnalysisofwordclａsｓestoidｅntiｆytｈesyntａcｔicrelａt(yī)ｉonｓｈｉｐbｅtwｅenwordsinasentence.4.4.４Agrｅement．Agreemenｔ(orcoｎcoｒd)mayｂedefinｅdａstherequirementｔhattheｆoｒmsｏftwoｏrmoreｗoｒｄsofspeｃifiｃｗordclasｓesthatｓｔandinspeｃifiｃsyｎｔaｃtｉcrelaｔionshipwithoｎeaｎoｔｈersｈalｌalso,bｅcharacterizedｂythesaｍeｐａradｉｇｍａt(yī)iｃallyｍａrkeｄcａt(yī)egoｒy(orｃaｔeｇorieｓ)．４．５Phrａse,CｌauseandSentence4．５.１ｐhraｓeＰraｓeｉsaｓｉngｌeelｅｍｅntofstrucｔureconｔａiningmorethａｎｏneｗord,andlackingtｈesuｂject－predicatｅstrｕcｔuretyｐicａloｆclａusｅｓ.ClauseClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitiveParticipialGerundialSubjectObjectAdverbialRelativeAppositionalComplement4.5．３ＳeｎtencｅＢaｓicseｎｔenceｔypeｓ:QuirｋＳVＣ

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