語言學(xué)提綱復(fù)習(xí)資料

復(fù)習(xí)提綱（40分）：1.thescopeoflinguistics語言學(xué)的研究范疇Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通語言學(xué))Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學(xué)）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系學(xué)）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形態(tài)學(xué)）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法學(xué)）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語義學(xué)）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語用學(xué)）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會語言學(xué)）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言學(xué)）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學(xué)）neurologicallinguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學(xué)）andcomputationallinguistics.（計算機語言學(xué)）2.thedifferenceoflanguageandlinguisticstructure3.designfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeatures語言的甄別性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.Arbitrariness語言的隨意性Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Example:differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Productivity語言的創(chuàng)造性Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Duality語言的二重性Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Displacement語言的移位性Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission語言的文化傳遞性Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.4.someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學(xué)研究中的幾對基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共時和歷時Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole語言和言語TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance語言能力和語言運用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.5.therelationshipbetweenlanguageandspeech:theyaredoubtlesscloselylinkedandeachpresupposestheother語言與言語的區(qū)別（sq不確定是不是這樣翻譯，只找到中文的）這兩個概念是索緒爾在《普通語言學(xué)教程》中提出的。索緒爾認(rèn)為：我們首先應(yīng)該在口頭交際活動或者說從語言活動這樣的社會現(xiàn)象中區(qū)分出兩個因素，也就是“語言”和“言語”；語言等于“言語活動”減去言語；語言是使一個人能夠理解和被人理解的全部語言習(xí)慣。即，語言是言語活動中社會成員約定俗成共同使用的部分，是均質(zhì)的，是言語活動的社會部分；言語則具有個人特色，因為每個人說話的嗓音、每個音的具體發(fā)音、每個人使用的詞語和句子結(jié)構(gòu)等方面都具有個人的特色，而且每個人每一次說話都是不同的，這些都是言語現(xiàn)象和言語要素，不屬于全社會約定俗成的語言。簡單的說，語言是言語活動中同一社會群體共同掌握的，有規(guī)律可循而又成系統(tǒng)的那一部分。語言是一個抽象的實體，是從言語活動中抽象出來的全社會約定俗成的均質(zhì)系統(tǒng)，而在抽象過程中，就必須把所有的個人要素或個人雜質(zhì)全排除出去。但，言語是很難找到規(guī)律的。它們的聯(lián)系在于：一方面，語言是從言語中概括出來的詞語和規(guī)則的總和。語言存在于言語當(dāng)中，言語是語言的存在形式。沒有言語就無所謂語言。另一方面，言語是個人說的行為和結(jié)果。也就是說，言語總是以語言為活動基礎(chǔ)的，語言在言語中起著規(guī)范作用。區(qū)分語言和言語有重大歷史意義。正如索緒爾所說：把語言和言語分開，我們一下子就把（1）什么是社會的，什么是個人的；（2）什么是主要的，什么是從屬的和多少是偶然的分開了。因此，語言、言語概念的提出，明確了語言學(xué)的研究對象問題，這在歷史比較語言學(xué)大行其道的階段是具有跨時代意義的。語言學(xué)的對象應(yīng)該限于有內(nèi)在一致規(guī)律并且成系統(tǒng)的語言，而排除無規(guī)律可循的言語因素。這樣，語言學(xué)才能成為一門真正的現(xiàn)代意義上的科學(xué)。至于跟言語活動有關(guān)部分的其他各種因素，不是不重要，也不是不需要研究，只是不屬于語言的本體部分，可以另行研究。6.internalandexternalelementsofalanguage7.threebranchesofphonetics語音學(xué)的三個分支Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:①Articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語音學(xué)）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.②Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.③Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.8.phonetics&phonologyPhonologyandphonetics音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.語音學(xué)研究人類所有的語言。音系學(xué)研究某種特定語言的語音系統(tǒng)。Example:單詞leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同對意義的表達并無關(guān)聯(lián)。所以，如果從語音學(xué)角度來說，這是兩個不同的語音，而從音系學(xué)角度來說，這是同一基本實體的兩個變體。音系學(xué)家對不引起意義區(qū)別的語音間的細(xì)微區(qū)別并不關(guān)注，但語音學(xué)家卻要對所有的語音進行描述，不論它們之間的差別對表達意義有沒有關(guān)系。9.phone,phoneme,allophone語音（音素）、音位、音位變體Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.語音是語言學(xué)研究的單位，是一個個具體的聲音。語音是一個語音單位或一個切分成分，它并不一定能區(qū)分意義。Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念，每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。一個音位在語音上被具體體現(xiàn)為一個特定的語音（音素）。按照慣例，音位被置于兩斜線之間，如/p//t/，而語音被置于方括號內(nèi)，如[p][t].Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.音位變體是一個音位在特定的語音環(huán)境里的具體體現(xiàn)，同一個音位在不同的語音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語音。10.phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair音位對立、互補分布、最小對立對Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.相似的語音之間可能有兩種關(guān)系。兩個相似的語音如果是兩個區(qū)別性音位，它們在意義上形成對立，如果是同一音位的變體，在意思上不形成對立。Theformeriscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.音位對立是指不同音位之間的關(guān)系，它們可以出現(xiàn)在不同的語音組合的同一位置，產(chǎn)生意義差別，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。Thelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.互補分布是指音位變體之間的關(guān)系，同一個音位的不同變體在語音組合中永遠不會出現(xiàn)在相同的位置上，它們沒有區(qū)別意義的作用，如top中的送氣的[p]和stop中不送氣的[p]。Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.確定一種語言的音位的一個基本途徑是，看如果用一個語音代替另一個是否會產(chǎn)生不同的意義。如果產(chǎn)生了，那么這兩個語音就代表不同的音位。為此，一個簡單的辦法就是找出最小對立對。Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.最小對立對是指除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合，如[pen]和[ben]。11.Sequentialrules,Assimalationrule,Deletionrule幾條音系規(guī)則:系列規(guī)則,同化規(guī)則,省略規(guī)則sequentialrules系列規(guī)則Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.在一種特定的語言中，語音的組合是受規(guī)則制約的，這些規(guī)則叫做系列規(guī)則。重要的規(guī)則：如果單詞以[l]或[r]為首，其后的一個語音必定為元音，如rude,last,leap如果三個輔音同時出現(xiàn)在單詞詞首，則：第一音位必定為/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict,splendid,spring塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s][z][F][V]后不能緊跟另一個咝音，如teach變復(fù)數(shù)為teaches[ti:tFiz]。制約音位模式的規(guī)則是隨語言的不同而不同的，英語中適用，其它語言卻不適用。assimilationrules同化規(guī)則Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.同化規(guī)則即通過“模仿”一個系列音位的一個特征使一個語音與另一個語音相似，從而使兩個音素變得相似。重要的規(guī)則：元音后緊跟一個鼻音時，該元音要鼻音話。如bean/green中的[i:]音。在一個單詞中，鼻音[n]所處的發(fā)音部位和緊隨其后的輔音的發(fā)音部位變得一樣。如correct–incorrect。語音同化規(guī)則也體現(xiàn)在有關(guān)單詞的拼寫中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因為[n]音同化成了[m]音。deletionrules省略規(guī)則Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.省略規(guī)則告訴我們什么時候一個語音盡管在拼寫中存在，但在發(fā)音中卻省略了。重要的規(guī)則：如[g]音出現(xiàn)在位于詞尾的一個鼻輔音前時要省略。如sign中的[g]音不發(fā)音。而在加了后綴的signature中，[g]卻要發(fā)音的。12.suprasegmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、聲調(diào)和語調(diào)Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.區(qū)別性特征也可以在由兩個或多個音位切分成分所組成的系列中體現(xiàn)出來。出現(xiàn)在切分層面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它們時音節(jié)、單詞和句子等語言單位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音調(diào)和語調(diào)。Stress重音重要的規(guī)則：一個單詞如果既可以作名詞，又可以作動詞，則名詞重音在第一個音節(jié)上，相應(yīng)的動詞重音則在第二個音節(jié)上。如import。英語復(fù)合詞的重音常在第一個成分上，第二個成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone聲調(diào)英語不是聲調(diào)語言，這里不作研究。Intonation語調(diào)Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.當(dāng)音高、重音和音長依附于一個句子而不是單個單詞時，這些音素合起來叫做語調(diào)。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英語中有四種基本語調(diào)：降調(diào)、升調(diào)、降升調(diào)、升降調(diào)。最常用的是前三種。13.thedifferencebetweenroot,stemandbase詞根,詞干,詞基的區(qū)別答案一：（來源百度文庫）Root:

A

root

is

that

part

of

the

word

left

when

all

the

affixes(inflectional

and

derivational)

are

removed

,e.g.

“desire”

in

“desirable”.

Stem:

A

stem

is

part

of

a

word-form

which

remains

when

all

inflectional

affixes

have

been

removed,

e.g.

“undesirable”

in

“undesirables”.

Base:

A

base

is

any

form

to

which

affixes

of

any

kind

can

be

added

.This

means

any

stem

and

root

can

be

termed

as

a

base

.答案二：（來源于國外問答網(wǎng)站）‘Root’,‘stem’and‘base’arealltermsusedintheliteraturetodesignatethatpartofawordthatremainswhenallaffixeshavebeenremoved.Arootisaformwhichisnotfurtheranalysable,eitherintermsofderivationalorinflectionalmorphology.Itisthatpartofword-formthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Arootisthebasicpartalwayspresentinalexeme.Intheform‘untouchables’therootis‘touch’,towhichfirstthesuffix‘-able’,thentheprefix‘un-‘a(chǎn)ndfinallythesuffix‘-s’havebeenadded.Inacompoundwordlike‘wheelchair’therearetworoots,‘wheel’and‘chair’.Astemisofconcernonlywhendealingwithinflectionalmorphology.Intheform‘untouchables’thestemis‘untouchable’,althoughintheform‘touched’thestemis‘touch’;intheform‘wheelchairs’thestemis‘wheelchair’,eventhoughthestemcontainstworoots.Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansthatanyrootoranystemcanbetermedabase,butthesetofbasesisnotexhaustedbytheunionofthesetofrootsandthesetofstems:aderivationallyanalysableformtowhichderivationalaffixesareaddedcanonlybereferredtoasabase.Thatis,‘touchable’canactasabaseforprefixationtogive‘untouchable’,butinthisprocess‘touchable’couldnotbereferredtoasarootbecauseitisanalysableintermsofderivationalmorphology,norasastemsinceitisnottheaddingofinflectionalaffixeswhichisinquestion.14.inflectionalmorphemes-Derivationalmorphemes-屈折語素派生語素Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折詞綴或屈折語素表明各種不同的語法關(guān)系或語法范疇，如：數(shù)、時態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級和格?，F(xiàn)在英語中的屈折詞綴包括：-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示現(xiàn)在時的第三人稱單數(shù)-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示過去時-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示進行時-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容詞和副詞最高級-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名詞的所有格Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生詞綴加在一個原有的單詞上以構(gòu)成一個新詞。這是英語中的一個很常見的構(gòu)成新詞的方式，這樣的方式叫派生法，用派生法構(gòu)成的新詞叫派生詞。能夠加上一個派生詞綴的原有語素叫做詞干。詞干可以是一個黏著詞根、自由語素或者本身就是一個派生詞。實例：Tolerate詞根toler-＋詞綴-ateQuickly自由語素quick＋詞綴-lyCarelessness自由語素care＋詞綴-less形成的派生詞careless＋詞綴-ness15.Waysofwordformation&coinage(來源于維基百科)MorphologicalwordformationTherearetwosubcategories;wordscreatedbyderivationandwordscreatedbyconversion.DerivationMainarticle:Derivation(linguistics)Derivationistheprocessofformingnewwordsfromexistingonesbyaddingaffixestothem,likeshame+less+ness→shamelessness.Incasesinwhichthereisaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenaffixesandsyntacticalcategories,thisisknownasagglutination,asseeninagglutinativelanguages.ConversionMainarticle:Conversion(wordformation)Alsoknownaszero-affixation,conversioninvolvesforminganewwordfromanexistingidenticalone,likeformingtheverbgreenfromtheexistingadjective.BlendingMainarticle:BlendwordAblendisawordformedbyjoiningpartsoftwoormoreolderwords.Anexampleissmog,whichcomesfromsmokeandfog,orbrunch,whichcomesfrom'breakfast'and'lunch'.Sub-categoriesofblendingare:Acronym:Awordformedfrominitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,likeEnglishlaserfromlightamplifiedbystimulatedemissionofradiationClipping:Alsoknownas"truncation"or"shortening",clippingisthewordformationprocesswhichconsistsinthereductionofawordtooneofitsparts,e.g.fax(facsimile),flu(influenza)andbot(robot).Clippedwordsmaynotretaintheiroriginalmeaning.Forexample,"playingavideogameagainstabot"isnotthesameas"playingavideogameagainstarobot".CalqueMainarticle:CalqueAcalqueisawordorphraseborrowedfromanotherlanguagebyliteral,word-for-wordorroot-for-roottranslation.Forexample,theEnglishphrasetoloseface（丟臉/丟臉）isacalquefromChinese.Asub-categoryofcalquingisthesemanticloan,thatis,theextensionofthemeaningofawordtoincludenew,foreignmeanings.NeologismMainarticle:NeologismAneologismisacompletelynewword,likequark.Subcategoriesofneologismsinclude:Theeponym,apropernounthatbecomescommonlyusedforanideaitisassociatedwith,usuallybychangingitspartofspeech,likeXerox,Orwellian,andStentorianTheloanword,awordborrowedfromanotherlanguage,asclichéisfromFrenchAnonomatopoeicword,awordwhichimitatesnaturalsounds,likethebirdnamecuckooFormationusingphono-semanticmatching,thatis,matchingaforeignwordwithaphoneticallyandsemanticallysimilarpre-existingnativeword/root16.Category17.thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined:Meaning;Inflection;Distribution18.TheXPrule,X’Theory&theSrule(查不完整)X-bartheoryX標(biāo)桿理論NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).X標(biāo)桿理論是將各種短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則高度抽象地綜合成單一的X標(biāo)桿規(guī)則理論。根據(jù)該理論，短語由指示語、核心詞和補語組成，其中指示語和補語可有可無，但核心詞卻不可缺少。19.CoordinationruleDefinitionSomestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchas

and

or

or.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.借助連詞,如或?qū)蓚€或兩個以上相同類型的成分聯(lián)結(jié)起來而構(gòu)成的短語結(jié)構(gòu)稱為并列結(jié)構(gòu)X-------x*ConxNote:xstandsfor“acategoryatanystructurallevel”theasterisk*indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtoleftoftheCon(conjunction).CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].20.Transformationsofsentencesmoveαrule Moveα–ageneralmovementrule移動α規(guī)則Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.”移動α規(guī)則是一條支配句法成分位移的普遍原則。如果X標(biāo)桿理論規(guī)則將各種短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則高度抽象地綜合起來一樣，該規(guī)則綜合了所有的位移規(guī)則，可以解釋所有語言中的一切位移現(xiàn)象。如果一個成分可以移到任意位置，那么就會又不合乎語法的句子出現(xiàn)。規(guī)則應(yīng)該有一些條件來限制移位能力，使得只有“某些成分”可以移動到“某些位置”。21.Deepstructure&surfacestructure深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.句法位移對語法研究的啟示是，一個句子結(jié)構(gòu)可以有兩個層次的句法表現(xiàn)，一個存在于位移發(fā)生之前，一個存在于位移發(fā)生之后。在正規(guī)的語言學(xué)研究中，這兩種句法表現(xiàn)稱為深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)。短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則通過插入詞匯在深層結(jié)構(gòu)上生成句子，而應(yīng)用句法位移規(guī)則又把句子從深層結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)化到表層結(jié)構(gòu)。Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.由于并非所有句子都能發(fā)生句法位移，因而一個句子的深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)在不同的表現(xiàn)層次上是完全相同的。22.viewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:Namingtheory(Plato);Theconceptualist;Contextualism;Behaviorism語義研究的幾種主要理論1) Thenamingtheory命名論ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.命名論是最原始的語義理論，是古希臘學(xué)者柏拉圖提出的。該理論把詞看作是該詞所指事物的名稱或標(biāo)記。2) Theconceptualistview意念論Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念論認(rèn)為，語言形式及其所代表的對象之間（即語言與現(xiàn)實世界之間）沒有直接聯(lián)系；確切地說，在理解語義時，是通過大腦中存在意念這一中介物來聯(lián)系的。3) Contextualism語境論Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.語境論以這樣的假設(shè)為基礎(chǔ)：人們可以從顯而易見的語境中推知或歸納出語義。語境有兩種：情景語境和語言語境。語境論認(rèn)為語言的意義離不開使用語言的語境，語義不是抽象的，它存在于語境之中，它來自語境，取決于語境。4) Behaviorism行為主義論Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.語義的行為主義論和語義的語境論有相似之處，它也把語義放到語境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活動，認(rèn)為語言的意義存在于語言使用者在交際過程中對聽到話語的反應(yīng)。23.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle語義三角理論(來源于網(wǎng)頁)OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.24.Senseandreference意義與指稱(來源于網(wǎng)頁)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.（文庫有詳細(xì)中文版：/view/8e13be3287c24028915fc39a.html）25.context&twotypesofcontextsaccordingtoContextualismContextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.語境論以這樣的假設(shè)為基礎(chǔ)：人們可以從顯而易見的語境中推知或歸納出語義。語境有兩種：情景語境和語言語境。語境論認(rèn)為語言的意義離不開使用語言的語境，語義不是抽象的，它存在于語境之中，它來自語境，取決于語境。26.Majorsenserelationsofwords:Synonymy;Antonymy;Polysemy;Homonymy;hyponymy主要意義關(guān)系1） Synonymy同義關(guān)系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同義現(xiàn)象指的是語義的相同或相近。詞義相近的詞叫同義詞。Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a) Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.方言同義詞－用在不同地域方言中的同義詞。英國英語和美國英語是英語的兩大地理變體。示例：英國英語美國英語AutumnfallLiftelevatorFlatdepartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlightb) Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.文體同義詞－在文體上有差異的同義詞。有同樣意義的詞可能在文體上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是說，有些往往比較正式，有些比較隨意，有些在問題上則是中性的。示例：Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringc) SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.情感意義或評價意義有所不同的同義詞。有著相同的意義卻表達了使用者的不同情感的詞語，這些詞暗示使用者對他所談?wù)摰氖虑榈膽B(tài)度或傾向。示例：Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同謀者，幫兇Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingyd) Collocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.搭配同義詞－同義詞在其搭配上各不相同，即能和這些不同的同義詞相配的詞各不相同。示例：Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…fore) Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.語義上不同的同義詞－同義詞的意義非常接近，但卻有細(xì)微差別。示例：Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示難以置信Escape意味逃離不愉快或者危險的事flee意味匆匆離開2） Polysemy多義關(guān)系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一個單詞可能有一個以上的意義，這就是我們所說的一詞多義，這樣的詞叫多義詞。一個詞越常用，它就越可能獲得一個以上的意義。示例：Table一詞最初只有一個意義，很可能指一塊石板或木板，這叫做其原始意義。后來它逐漸獲得了它現(xiàn)在所指稱的其它意義。3） Homonymy同音/同形異義關(guān)系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.同形異義是指意義不同的詞有著相同的語言形式的現(xiàn)象，即不同的詞發(fā)音上或拼寫上，或者兩個方面都相同。兩個單詞在發(fā)音上相同時，叫同音異義詞。兩個單詞在拼寫上相同時，叫同形異義詞。兩個單詞在發(fā)音和拼寫上都相同時，叫完全同形異義詞。示例：同音異義詞：rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形異義詞：bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形異義詞：fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.4） Hyponymy上下義關(guān)系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.上下義關(guān)系是指一個具有一般性、包容性的詞與一個更為具體的詞之間的意義關(guān)系。意義更具有一般性的詞叫上義詞，意義更為具體的詞叫下義詞。同一個上義詞的多個下義詞叫并列下義詞。示例：上義詞：flower下義詞：rose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牽?；ǎ┥狭x詞：animal下義詞：dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear5） Antonymy反義關(guān)系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反義關(guān)系用以指意義的相反。意義上相反的詞叫反義詞。a) Gradableantonyms分級反義詞Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateform