(完整word版)新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程第二版整理

實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Chapter1:Introduction1.Linguistics:語言學(xué)Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguageingeneral)2.Generallinguistics:普通語言學(xué)Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.(languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets)3.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.4.descriptive(描述性):Alinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.5.prescriptive(規(guī)定性):Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviors.i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.6.synchronic(共時語言學(xué)):thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhiatory7.diachronic(歷時語言學(xué):thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtime3)speech（口語）Writing（書面語）Thesethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.(speechispriortowriting)8.langue(語言):referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.9.parole(言語referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.(Saussure)10.competence(語言能力):theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage11.performance(語言應(yīng)用):theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(Chomsky)traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics1.linguisticsisdescriptive,whiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive2.modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewriter.3.alsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoalatin-basedframework.Functionsoflanguage.精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案1.thedescriptivefunction.2.theexpressivefunction3.thesocialfunctionChapter2:Phonology音系學(xué)thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;phoneticsitisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurinthewor.d’slanguagesThethreebranchesofphonetics(1).Articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué))(longesthistory)(2.)Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)）(3)Acousticphonetics(聲學(xué)語音學(xué)）2.Speechorgans:threeimportantareas⑴Pharyngealcavity咽腔----thethroat;⑵Theoralcavity口腔----themouth;⑶Nasalcavity–鼻腔---thenose.Theprinciplesourcesuchmodificationsisthetongue.Thetongueisthemostflexible.InternationalPhoneticAlphabet[IPA]:thebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription寬式音標(biāo).Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.Narrowtranscription窄式音標(biāo)Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.Aspiratedandunaspiratedphonology:音系學(xué)Itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.1).4.Phone,phoneme,allophoneAphone音素isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].Aphoneme音位isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].Allophones音素變體----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案sequentialrule,⑴Sequentialrule):rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.⑵Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundtoanotherbycopyingfeaturesofsequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.⑶Deletionrule（省略規(guī)則）:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.6.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）⑴StressWordstressandsentencestress⑵Tone聲調(diào)Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.⑶Intonation語調(diào)Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)thefrise-falltone(notfrequentlyused)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.Chapter3:MorphologyMorphology形態(tài)學(xué):referstothethestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformedMorpheme詞素:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Freemorpheme:amorphemecanbeawordbyitself.Boundmorpheme.:amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone.Allmorphs詞素變體:thevariantformsofamorphemeChapter4:SyntaxSyntax句法學(xué):Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Word-levelcategories1,Majorlexicalcategories2.minorlexicalcategories精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Todetermineawordscategorie,threecriteraareusuallyemployed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacentainwordcategorycomplementizerswordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementcomplementclausethesentenceintroducedbythecmomplementizersD-structure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssubcategorizationpropertiesS-structure:correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsformappropriatetransformation.Chapter5:SemanticsSemantics:語義學(xué)canbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Thenamingtheory(命名論)Oldestnotionsconceringmeaning.mostprimitiveone.ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2）Theconceptualistview（意念論）Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalin-guisticformandwhatitrefersto.Intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism（語境論）①Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:②Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituation③Linguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.④Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.4)Behaviorism（行為主義論）Bloomfield①Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.②ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________R3.Senseandreference①Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.②Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.4.Majorsenserelations（同義關(guān)系）Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同義詞精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案completesynonyms,i.e.synonymythataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare（同音/同形異義）Homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,（1)Homophones（同音異義）:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones.e.g.rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形異義:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.e.g.tearv./tearn.（3)Complete同音同形異義):Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.e.g.fastv./fastadj.;scalev./scale.n.（下義關(guān)系）Hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.eg.superordinate:flowerhyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily（反義關(guān)系）thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning1)Gradableantonyms（等級反義詞）----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short…2)Complementaryantonyms（互補反義詞）----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female…3)Relationalopposites（關(guān)系反義詞）----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below…2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:1.grammaticalmeaning2.semanticmeaning,e.g.selectionalrestrictions.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyruleseg.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothersPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Chapter6:Pragmatics1).Pragmatics:語用學(xué)thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning.WhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaningIfitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.⑴Austin’snewmodelofspeechactsUtterancemeaning:themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.CooperativePrinciple(CD):PaulGrice.Hisideaisthattoconversewitheachother,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.3）Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)Themaximofquantity（數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則）Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).（使自己所說的話達(dá)到當(dāng)前交談目的所要求的詳盡程度。）Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.（不能使自己所說的話比所要求的更詳盡。）hemaximofquality（質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.（不要說自己認(rèn)為不真實的話。）Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.（不要說自己缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話。）Themaximofrelation（關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則）Berelevant.（說話要貼切。）Themaximofmanner（方式準(zhǔn)則）Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)（說話要簡短，避免累贅。）Beorderly.（說話要有條理。）Chapter8Sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheuseoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.精彩文檔實用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案speechvariety言語變體referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Linguisticrepertoire語言庫thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.Halliday’sregisteroryaccordingtoHalliday(British),“l(fā)anguagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Register語域thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasapprppriatetothetypeofsituationisaRegisterfieldofdiscourse,話語范圍Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.tenorofdiscourse,話語意旨Itreferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestionmodeofdiscourse話語方式ItreferstothemeansofcommunicationFivestagesofformalityIntimateCasualConsultativeFormalFrozenBilingualism雙語現(xiàn)象Insomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.diglossiaAccordingtoFerguson(1959),referstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.chapter9culture文化inabroadsense,reflectsatotalwayoflifeofapeopleinacommunity.inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.therelationoflanguagetocultureisthatofparttowhole.discoursecommunities話語社會thecommonwaysinwhichmembersofthesocialgroupusesimilarlanguagetomeettheirneeds.linguisticrelativity語言相對性toputitsimply,differentlanguageofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,andsotheythinkandspeakdifferentlyanlinguisticsignmaysimultaneouslyhaveadenotativmeanings.e,connotativemeanings.,iconicmeanings.threeformsof