hyponymy(詞義之間的)下義關(guān)系

1、詞 匯 學(xué)Unit FourWord MeaningLectured by zhongmin1I. Word Meaning 1. A Word and Word Meaning 2. Motivation of Words 3. Analysis of word meaning and semantic fieldII. Makeup of Word Meaning 1.Grammatical meaning and Lexical Meaning 2.Conceptual meaning and Associative meaning 3. Connotative meaning 4. S

2、tylistic meaning 5. Affective meaning 6. Collocative meaning 21. A Word and Its MeaningSemantics Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. But lexicology will focus on the lexical level. The types of meaning and sense relations such

3、as polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy(詞義之間的)下義關(guān)系,上下位關(guān)系and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute an important part of lexicology. 1)The relation between a word and its meaning Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect sound, and the inner aspect mean

4、ing. 32) Words and concepts i) Words and concepts are inseparable. Concepts are embodied in words: we cannot think without words. Words are abstraction of things; a book is a book, not any particular kind of book like novel, pictorial, textbook. ii) Words and concepts are not identical a) Only notio

5、nal(表意的, 實(shí)義的)words reflect things. Form words are not related to any actual thing in real life. They are abstraction(提取)of grammatical relations. b) The same concept can be expressed by different words: underground(BrE), tube (BrE), subway (AmE), all mean the same thing. One word can also express va

6、rious different concepts: “face” may signify: the front part of the head; outward appearance; the principal side of surface of anything: the front of a building, an arch, a cliff, etc.; the marked side of a playing card, watch, etc. 4 2. Words Motivation Polysemy(一詞多義) The word polysemy is of Greek

7、origin (GK. polys- many and sema- meaning) and means as its etymology shows, a plurality of meaning. i)Diachronic(歷時性的）approach to polysemy If polysemy is viewed diachronically, it is understood as the growth and development or, in general, a change in the semantic structure of the word. e.g. table:

8、 1) a piece of furniture; 2) the persons seated at a table (to keep the table amused); 3) (sing. only) the food put on a table, meals (to keep a good, poor table); 4) a flat slab of stone or wood used for inscriptions; 5) words out into it or written on it (the ten tables); 6) an orderly arrangement

9、 of facts, figures, etc. (table of contents); 7) part of machine tool on which the work is put to be operated on; 8) a level area, a plateau. 5ii)Synchronic（共時性的） approach to polysemy Synchronically we understand polysemy as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historica

10、l period of the development of the English language. Two processes lead to polysemy: Radiation (詞義的輻射): a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. Each of them is independent of all the rest and may be t

11、raced back to the central signification. “head” Concatenation (詞義的連鎖,連接): the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first signification by successive shifts of meaning until, in many cases, there is not a shadow of connection between the sense that is finally

12、developed and that which the term had in it at the outset(開始). “cheater” iii)panchronical approach to polysemy Different languages use different words to show the same meaning.6“head”central meaning: part of a body(1) top of anything: the head of a walking stick;(2) the highest or uppermost part of

13、a thing: of a bed;(3) a leader: a head of state; (4) the head of coin;(5) the source of a stream, spring: the head of the river;(6) the hydraulic sense: fifty meters head of waters;(7) promontory:(海角) Flamborough Head;(8) an army force, a troop;(9) a unit of counting: ten head of cattle(10) a person

14、 or individual: quick lunches at 5$ a head;(11) the main points (要點(diǎn)): the heads of the discourse;(12) mental power (才智 ): use your head7cheater: 其原意 為“an officer who attended to escheats” 即，看管領(lǐng)主的土地的官吏。后因這種人常常損公肥私成為不老實(shí)的人(a dishonest person)，現(xiàn)在作“騙子”解。此義與原義已失去聯(lián)系。 candidate源自拉丁語candidatus (white-robbed

15、穿白衣的)，原義指“穿白衣的人”(a person dressed in white)，后用來指“穿白衣的謀求公職的人”(a white-robbed seeker for office)。這與古羅馬的風(fēng)俗有關(guān)，當(dāng)時凡候選人參加選舉時均需穿上白衣。隨著語言的發(fā)展，“穿白衣的”的原始意義喪失，只保留“候選人”(a seeker for office) 一義。顯然，此義與原義已經(jīng)分離。8Concept of “arbitrariness” and “motivation” The relation between the meaning of a word and its sound is arb

16、itrary(無理據(jù)性的). The majority of the words in the vocabulary of any language are conventional symbols(約定俗成的語音符號), it is not possible to explain why this or that word has this or that sound. Only a minority of words can be explained: we can say that they are motivated. Motivation(理據(jù)) refers to the rela

17、tionship between words. Motivation can arise in Four ways: 9 i) Phonetic motivation. These are called echo words, or onomatopoeia: cuckoo, dingdong, mew, bark, etc. ii) Grammatical motivation. A word like landlord is not purely conventional, although land and lord are conventional. Similarly, the wo

18、rd leader can be understood by any one who knows the English verb to lead and the suffix - er. iii) Motivation by meaning. Bottleneck(狹口，隘道如公路或管道上狹窄或有障礙的部分)with reference to administration, production, etc., will be readily understood by all who know that “a narrow outlet for road-traffic” is often

19、called by that name. Here it is the figurative usage that provides motivation: an obstruction is called a bottleneck because it is like the neck of a bottle. iv) Motivation by etymon: the original or primary meaning of a word. A root or root word is one of those ultimate elements of a language that

20、cannot be further analyzed - a primary word or form from which others are derived. 10Popular or folk etymology(民俗詞源） Folk etymology is the change that occurs in the form of a word over a period of prolonged usage so as to give it an apparent connection with some other well known word. For example, t

21、he word cutlet(炸肉排) comes Fr. ctelette, cte = rib + the diminutive(指小的)form, lette, therefore it means a small slice of meat from the ribs or leg, for frying or broiling(烤肉), then people have the wrong association and spell it cut instead of cte. Some other common examples: Hamburger: hamburg steak,

22、 now stands for a kind of sandwich made with chopped beef in a round bun. So popular that people thought it had something to do with ham and burger(碎肉夾餅), so they coined words like cheeseburger, chickenburger, turtleburger, lobsterburger, nutburger, raisinburger, wineburger. exercise113. Analysis of

23、 word meaning and semantic fieldi)Analysis of word meaning Every word has one or more than one meanings. Every word can be analyzed into many semanticcomponents or semantic features (viewed as distinctive features)ii)Semantic field: Definition: It is a small system that a group of words belong to th

24、e same category, which are closely related to one another1) Life and Living Things2) The Body: its Function and Welfare3) People and the Family124) Buildings, Houses, the Home, Clothes, Belongings, and Personal Care5) Food, Drink, and Farming6) Feelings, Emotions, attitudes, and Sensations7) Thought

25、 and Communication, Language and Grammar8) Substances, Materials, Objects, and Equipment9) Arts and Crafts, Science and Technology, Industry and Education10) Numbers, Measurement, Money and Commerce11) Entertainment, Sports, and Games12) Space and Time13) Movement, Location, Travel and Transport14)

26、General and Abstract Terms13 Different semantic fields in different languages Different nationalities divide the same kinds of things into different categories. So in their languages, Using different words shows their meanings.Lexical gapsSemantic fields are complete sameSemantic fields are partiall

27、y same Beware of “false friend”. It is called “misnomer” exercisesNote:14Exercise 11.語音分析 splash lap tinkle 發(fā)出濺潑聲 (水)濺潑聲 丁當(dāng)作響 bubble whir twitter 潺潺的流 呼呼聲/鳥鳴聲, 喋喋不休2.構(gòu)詞分析depend : de (前綴，表“否定，相反” ) , pend (懸掛 )ultra-violet:紫外線 , ultr (超過 ); violet(紫光)trustworthy: trust(信任), worth(值得), lyharmless: har

28、m, less borderline:邊界線; border(邊界), line(線路)skin-deep: skin+deep=膚淺的, 表面的Straightforward:straight+forward=正直的, 坦率的153.詞源分析parliament: The French word to speak is parler. The Normans who conquered England in 1066 spoke French and it was they who introduced parliament to the country.pajamas: This word

29、 comes from the Persian words pae and jamab which meant a “l(fā)arge garment”. In English we use it for a sleeping suitlibrary: This word comes from the Latin word liber which means a “book”.panic: Pan was the Greek god of the forests and meadows(草地, 牧場) and the son of Mercury 羅神墨丘利神(眾神的信使). He was half

30、 man and half goat and could inspire great and sudden fear by his strange appearance. It was half man and half goat16 and could inspire great and sudden fear by his strange appearance. It was from Pans name that the word, panic, came.tank: The tank used in warfare(戰(zhàn)爭) was named in an unusual way. Th

31、e vehicle was developed by the British during World War I. As it was a new weapon which they wished to keep secret until used, they labelled the parts “FOR TANKS” and the name stuck.month: The suffix ”th” was added to the Old English word Mona which thus became monath, the period of time which the m

32、oon measures. New moon to new moon= 1 month.watt: It is the unit of electrical power and was named after James Watt, who was the famous inventor of the steam engine. 17Exercise 21.F 2. M 3. I 4. B 5. C 6. N 7. L 8. A 9. D 10. G 11. H 12. K 13. E14.J 15. L 16. M 17. A 18.F 19. E 20. JExercise 3A kind

33、 of thin paper made esp. in China and used by artists there.A type of large bird bred and kept on farms for its meat which is highly regarded as food, esp. for Christmas.A hard smooth shiny variously colored substance formed inside the shell of certain shellfish, used for making ornamental articles.

34、Large dark-brown insect that comes out at night in dirty kitchens and places where food is kept.185. Dark black ink made from natural substances, such as that used for Chinese and Japanese writing with a brush.6. A stone at the side of a road, on which is marked the number of miles to the next town.

35、19II. Makeup of Word Meaning Types of meaning1. Grammatical meaning and Lexical meaning Grammatical meaning refers to that part of meaning which indicates grammatical relationships or functions, such as tense meaning, singular meaning, etc. Words with the similar lexical meaning can have different g

36、rammatical meanings, and words with different lexical meanings can have the same grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning is in use. Lexical meaning refers to a words aspects of its content. e.g. go, goes, gone, went, going(different grammatical meaning, but same lexical meaning) exercise 1 202. Con

37、ceptual meaning and Associative meaning Lexical meaning is composed of conceptual meaning and associative meaning. Lexical meaning is relatively stable. e.g. father, dad,daddy, papa, the old man, male parent. Conceptual meaning is often described as dictionary meaning or literal meaning of a word. I

38、t is the core of the meaning of a word. It is relatively constant and stable, because it is the meaning agreed upon by all the members of the same speech community. (P.108) Associative meaning is that part of meaning which has been supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It is the meaning which aris

39、es of the associations a word acquires. It is open-ended(未確定的), unstable and indeterminate, because it varies with culture, time, place, class, individual experiences, etc. Associative meaning includes connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings. 213. Connotative meaning Connotative m

40、eaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations are apt to vary from age to age and from society to society. Talking about connotation is in fact talking about the real world experience one associates with

41、 an expression when one uses or hears it.(P109-110 )1)It plays an important role in daily conversation and literary works.e.g. statesman, politicanwolf: 喻殘忍貪婪的人; 陰險狡猾的人; 殘暴的人dragon: 噴火吐焰的妖魔 monkey:詭計多端, 極端狡猾Sea: 廣闊，無限，浩瀚gold: 錢財, 財富, 幸福22 2) The same word has different connotative meanings in differ

42、ent cultures(P.111) In all cultures, different colors have different associations. Here are some associations that colors have for British and American people. Red warns of danger. Green, the color of nature, also represents envy. If you are green with envy, you badly want something that someone has

43、. Purple is associated with kings and queens and Roman emperors, because in the past, these were the only people who were allowed to wear purple. Blue is connected with sadness. If somebody looks blue, he is in very low spirits. Gray is connected with being dull and boring. A gray day is an unpleasa

44、nt day. Black is associated with death and evil. White is associated with purity and moral goodness. Yellow represents coward. Exercise 2234. Stylistic meaning Language use can be formal, neutral and casual in style. The stylistic features of words, which make words appropriate for appropriate situa

45、tions, constitute stylistic meanings of words. 1)words with neutral stylistic meanings and basic vocabulary(P.111-112) 2)formal words(P.113) nosenasal, toothdental exercise 3 esp. technical terms in science exercise 4 3)informal words(colloquialism, slang exercise 5, vulgarism, professionalism, argo

46、t) 4)neologism exercise 6 and obsolescence exercise 7 5)regional dialect exercise 8 and social dialect(p.121) 245. Affective meaning(p.122) Affective meaning refers to that part of meaning which conveys emotions and attitudes of a language user. Sometimes affective meanings are brought out only in c

47、ontext. exclamation(Oh, dear), evaluative words(horrible) Some words themselves have feelings.(love, hate) Some affixes added to some words can also have feelings.(weakling虛弱者, 懦怯者)Endearments(darling), VerbNoun(bore), conception meaningconnotation meaning(Nazi, freedom) A group of words with the sa

48、me conception meaning have different feeling.( slim-thin-skinny)p.125 People have different opinions about the same word. To Chinese people, China and communism are special feeling. To some Americans, they think China is “the yellow peril”, “the red threat”, “the communist menace”. exercises 256. Co

49、llocative meaning(P.126) Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words that go before or come after a word in question. e.g. The t

50、orch flashes. The lantern gleams. black tea bored by/with tremble with fear quiver with excitement exercise26Exercise OneA.1.plod(沉重緩慢地走), trudge(跋涉)2.waddle(蹣跚而行) 3.strut(大搖大擺地走)4.stagger(搖搖擺擺走) 5.slouch(懶洋洋地走)6.stride(大步行走) 7.mince(小步走路)8.dawdle(閑逛，游蕩) 9.shuffle(拖著腳走)9.hustle(硬擠過去;擁硬擠; 亂推, 擠進(jìn)出)B.1

51、.drawl(懶洋洋地說) 2.stammer(結(jié)結(jié)巴巴地說)3.mutter(咕噥) 4.gabble(喋喋不休地說)5.lisp(咬著舌兒說) 6.chat(聊天), yarn(奇談)7.tattle(閑談) 8.prattle(天真地說)9.sneer(冷笑, 嘲笑) 10.rave(咆哮)27Exercise 21.g 2.l 3.o 4.c 5.i 6.r 7.a 8.t9.d 10.n 11.s 12.m 13.p 14.q 15.k16.b 17.f 18.j 19.h 20.e backExercise 31.literary(書本的) 2.fraternal 3.feline

52、(貓科的)4.puerile(孩子氣的) 5.filial(子女的, 孝順的)6.diurnal(每日的) 7.canine(犬的)8.auricular(耳的, 耳狀的) 9.terrestrial(陸地)10.oval(卵形的, 橢圓的) 11.ocular(眼睛的, 視覺的)12.paternal 13.igneous(火的) 14.hostile(敵對的)15.vulpine(狡猾的) 16.amicable(友善的, 和平的)17.manual(手工的, 體力的) 18.capital(重要的)19. cordial(熱誠的；衷心的) 20.celestial(天上的) 2821.e

53、quine(馬的) 22.marital(婚姻的)23.renal(腎臟的) 24.equestrian(騎士階層的)25.vital(生命的) 26.lucid(光輝的, 明亮的)27.labial(唇的, 嘴唇的) 28.human29.lactic(.乳的, 乳汁的) 30.mental 31.lunar32.maternal 33.oral 34.nominal(名字的)35.nocturnal(夜的, 夜曲的) 36.nasal37.bovine(牛的, 似牛的) 38.spacious(廣大的)39.marine 40.ovine(綿羊的) 41.visible42.cutaneo

54、us(皮膚的) 43.filial(子女的, 孝順的, 當(dāng)做子女的)44.vernal(春天的) 45.fluvial(河流的)46.stellar 47.solar 48.temporal(時間的)2949.lingual(語言的) 50.dental 51.urban52.arboreal(樹的) 53.veracious(真實(shí)的) 54.bellicose(好戰(zhàn)的, 好斗的) 55.aqueous(水的)56.conjugal( 夫婦間的) 57.mundane(世界的)58.vermicular(蠕蟲的) 59.feminine(婦女的)60.juvenile(青少年的)Exercise Four1.鋇 2.銀 3.氮 4.