關(guān)于“美左橋諾-梅佐喬諾”的說(shuō)法

1、關(guān)于“美左橋諾-梅佐喬諾”的說(shuō)法前些日子，有學(xué)友就增長(zhǎng)中的一個(gè)熱鬧的名詞美左橋諾，問(wèn)我出處，于是查找介紹如下：1 “美左橋諾-梅佐喬諾”詞匯在中國(guó)的出現(xiàn)2009年11月15日，廣東省出版集團(tuán)、中國(guó)社科院科研局、中國(guó)社科院經(jīng)濟(jì)研究所、廣東經(jīng)濟(jì)出版社、經(jīng)濟(jì)研究、時(shí)代周報(bào)在中國(guó)社會(huì)科學(xué)院學(xué)術(shù)報(bào)告廳舉行“未來(lái)10年中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)走向”高峰論壇暨影響新中國(guó)60年經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)的100位經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家首發(fā)式。出席該報(bào)告會(huì)的中國(guó)社科院人口與勞動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)研究所所長(zhǎng)蔡昉，發(fā)表了要防止中西部成為意大利的“美左橋諾”的講話(huà)。對(duì)此，經(jīng)濟(jì)參考報(bào)記者徐培英2009年11月17日在該報(bào)登載題為吳敬璉厲以寧等提出未來(lái)10年中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)四大警示的文章，

2、當(dāng)天經(jīng)新浪財(cái)經(jīng)(2009年11月17日07:01)上傳，國(guó)內(nèi)各網(wǎng)站轉(zhuǎn)載以后，這一詞匯開(kāi)始被廣泛引用。四個(gè)月以后的2010-03-24，南方周末登載了該報(bào)記者戴志勇采訪蔡昉的文章，“產(chǎn)業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)移，助推中國(guó)再高速發(fā)展30年”，以訪談對(duì)話(huà)的方式具體詳細(xì)地交代了蔡昉的中英文表述：梅佐喬諾“Mezzogiorno”。所以，該詞是針對(duì)中國(guó)問(wèn)題由蔡昉引入運(yùn)用的，不是吳敬璉；音譯的中文表述用“梅佐喬諾”看來(lái)更合第一位引用者的原意。但有趣是，經(jīng)濟(jì)日?qǐng)?bào)記者率先將音譯表述為自己認(rèn)為的方式，卻在大眾傳播中占據(jù)了主要位置，以百度搜索為例，關(guān)鍵詞“梅佐喬諾” 2010-3-30的搜索結(jié)果有902篇，而以“美左橋諾”為關(guān)鍵詞的

3、搜索則有相關(guān)網(wǎng)頁(yè)3430篇。2 “Mezzogiorno”的地域概念在蔡昉2009-12-14在自己博客里的完整表述 (博文題名為：謹(jǐn)防中西部陷入“梅佐喬諾陷阱”)：梅佐喬諾（Mezzogiorno）在意大利語(yǔ)中的含義是正午陽(yáng)光（相當(dāng)于英語(yǔ)Midday），指意大利半島的南部外加西西里和撒丁島，或泛指意大利南部。該地區(qū)傳統(tǒng)上以農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)為主，與意大利北方存在很大的發(fā)展差距。在意大利全國(guó)劃分的20個(gè)政區(qū)（大區(qū)），及所轄的103個(gè)省的名稱(chēng)中 20個(gè)行政區(qū)分別是：十五個(gè)普通自治行政區(qū)，和五個(gè)因少數(shù)民族、歷史和邊遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)等原因而設(shè)立的特別自治行政區(qū)：15個(gè)普通自治行政區(qū)：皮埃蒙特、倫巴第、威內(nèi)托、利古里亞、

4、艾米利亞羅馬涅、托斯卡納、翁布里亞、拉齊奧、馬爾凱、阿布魯佐、莫利塞、坎帕尼亞、普利亞、巴西利卡塔、卡拉布里亞；5個(gè)特別自治行政區(qū)：弗留利-威尼斯朱利亞、薩丁、西西里、特倫蒂諾-上阿迪杰和瓦萊達(dá)奧斯塔。，并沒(méi)有“Mezzogiorno”，因?yàn)樵馐侵笗r(shí)間，而非正式的地域名稱(chēng)，不過(guò)也可以非正式地泛指意大利南部。但是，現(xiàn)在的引用也不僅僅是地域的概念，而是又作引申了。因?yàn)檫@是一個(gè)不斷引申的概念，所以引用該詞時(shí)不宜說(shuō)成地域概念的“意大利的美左橋諾”地區(qū)，穩(wěn)妥的說(shuō)法是某個(gè)國(guó)家出現(xiàn)的“Mezzogiorno”現(xiàn)象。有了蔡老師的英文詞匯，于是就可以查google和wikipedia了。Wikipedia給出

5、了更為詳盡的內(nèi)容：Southern ItalySouthern ItalySouthern Italy (Italian: Italia Meridionale) or the Mezzogiorno (Midday) or also in gergal spoken words Terronia (Soil-land) generally refers to the southern portion of the continental Italian peninsula and Sicily, historically forming the Kingdom of Two Sicilies

6、 plus the island of Sardinia. It encompasses the modern regions of Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Apulia and Molise, which lie in Italy's south, and Abruzzo which is located in central Italy and the islands of Sicily and finally Sardinia (that is recognised as part of Mezzogiorno for economic r

7、easons, because it benefited of Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, but it also belongs geographically to Insular Italy.45 Sardinia is culturally and historically close to Central and Northern Italy, as it was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and related to the Maritime Republics of Genoa and Pisa). Some woul

8、d also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio (Sora, Cassino, Gaeta, Cittaducale, and Amatrice districts), which historically were part of the southern kingdom. 更多內(nèi)容詳見(jiàn)附錄。3 “美左橋諾”現(xiàn)象及含義:從蔡昉引用“美左橋諾”時(shí)表達(dá)的含義來(lái)看，“Mezzogiorno”現(xiàn)象總體上是指同一個(gè)國(guó)家或地區(qū)之內(nèi)的地區(qū)之間，在整體經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)之后收入差距反而拉得更大，具體含義包括：第一，整體增長(zhǎng)中二元經(jīng)濟(jì)的結(jié)構(gòu)沒(méi)有得到

9、緩解反而有可能更為嚴(yán)重了，例如落后地區(qū)以農(nóng)業(yè)為主的產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)和就業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)依然沒(méi)有改變，從而低收入水平依舊；第二，原落后地區(qū)屬于計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)的運(yùn)行方式，在增長(zhǎng)過(guò)程中雖然就市場(chǎng)開(kāi)放，行政對(duì)資源配置的指令在形式上被取消，但是社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)的轉(zhuǎn)軌并沒(méi)有達(dá)到發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)的體制、機(jī)制運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)自然的狀態(tài)；第三，在落后地區(qū)由政府主導(dǎo)的大量轉(zhuǎn)移投資、補(bǔ)貼并沒(méi)有誘導(dǎo)出吸納就業(yè)的產(chǎn)業(yè)，沒(méi)有導(dǎo)致這些地區(qū)的人均收入水平的提高。即使這些落后地區(qū)曾經(jīng)也有過(guò)比較快的增長(zhǎng)，但是后來(lái)還是又慢下來(lái)了。從產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展來(lái)看，政府大量地轉(zhuǎn)移投資、補(bǔ)貼都用在了這些相對(duì)落后的地區(qū)，但是它誘導(dǎo)出來(lái)的產(chǎn)業(yè)，不是吸納就業(yè)的產(chǎn)業(yè)，這些產(chǎn)業(yè)沒(méi)有導(dǎo)致這些地區(qū)的人均收入水平的提高

10、。例如原以為中國(guó)東部的勞動(dòng)密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)向中西部地區(qū)轉(zhuǎn)移，將使后者的勞動(dòng)-資本投入比提高，但是實(shí)際上是資本密集程度更高了，就業(yè)和勞動(dòng)收入在落后地區(qū)并未因此顯著改善。(中西部地區(qū)變得更加資本密集型了，但是中西部人均收入還比較低。)從體制轉(zhuǎn)型來(lái)看，“梅佐喬諾陷阱”實(shí)際上是由于這區(qū)域發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略為落后地區(qū)提供了趕超所需的物質(zhì)資源，卻沒(méi)有提供必要的人力資本和體制保障；提供了發(fā)展的外部推動(dòng)力，卻沒(méi)有建立起自身的發(fā)展激勵(lì)機(jī)制；來(lái)自外部輸入的物質(zhì)資源短期內(nèi)促進(jìn)了經(jīng)濟(jì)總量的增長(zhǎng)，卻由于這種增長(zhǎng)沒(méi)有遵循該經(jīng)濟(jì)體的比較優(yōu)勢(shì)，因而所形成的產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)并不能保證增長(zhǎng)的可持續(xù)性。意大利當(dāng)前的情況依然值得參考，具體有兩個(gè)資料列在附錄

11、1中（一個(gè)是公共基礎(chǔ)建設(shè)投資；另一個(gè)設(shè)立免稅區(qū)的稅收政策）。附錄1· 意大利南部公共投資拉動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)生的效益卻顯明低于中北部歐聯(lián)社1月12日電 據(jù)安莎社新聞，意大利中心銀行報(bào)告顯示，從占國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的份額看，固然政府對(duì)南部地域公路、鐵路、公用建筑等的公共投資高于其對(duì)中部和北部地域的投資，但由于存在貪污、低效及地域差異等因素，南部地域公共投資拉動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)生的效益卻顯明低于中北部。如每投資1歐元用于公共設(shè)施建設(shè)，北部的威尼托大區(qū)對(duì)國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的貢獻(xiàn)約為1.11歐元，而南部的阿布魯佐大區(qū)的貢獻(xiàn)僅為0.84歐元。· 意大利將在南部地區(qū)建立22個(gè)免稅工業(yè)區(qū)來(lái)源:山東國(guó)際商務(wù)網(wǎng) 首發(fā)子站:

12、辦公室 首發(fā)欄目:新聞資訊 日期:2009-10-31意大利24小時(shí)太陽(yáng)報(bào)近日?qǐng)?bào)道，意大利將在南部地區(qū)建立22個(gè)免稅工業(yè)區(qū)，其中包括阿布魯佐大區(qū)在內(nèi)的南部共設(shè)18個(gè)，拉齊奧大區(qū)2個(gè)，托斯卡納大區(qū)1個(gè)。在免稅工業(yè)區(qū)內(nèi)，小型企業(yè)特別是微小型企業(yè)可以享受一系列稅收方面的優(yōu)惠。預(yù)計(jì)第一批免稅區(qū)將在2010年內(nèi)建成。附錄2：意大利20個(gè)行政大區(qū)及南部大區(qū)所轄省份政區(qū)（大區(qū)）首府面積1. 阿布魯佐（Abruzzo）拉奎拉（L'Aquila）10,794 km²2. 瓦萊達(dá)奧斯塔（Valle d'Aosta）奧斯塔（Aosta）3,263 km²3. 普利亞（Puglia

13、）巴里（Bari）19,366 km²4. 巴斯利卡塔（Basilicata）波坦察（Potenza）9,995 km²5. 卡拉布里亞（Calabria）卡坦扎羅（Catanzaro）15,081 km²6. 坎帕尼亞（Campania）拿坡里（Napoli）13,590 km²7. 艾米利亞-羅馬涅（Emilia-Romagna）博羅尼亞（Bologna）22,123km²8. 弗留利-威尼斯朱利亞（Friuli-Venezia Giulia）的里雅斯特（Trieste）7,856 km²9. 拉齊奧（Lazio）羅馬（Roma）

14、17,208 km²10. 利古利亞（Liguria）熱那亞（Genova）5,420 km²11. 倫巴第（Lombardia）米蘭（Milano）23,863 km²12. 馬爾凱（Marche）安科納（Ancona）9,694 km²13. 莫利塞（Molise）坎波巴索（Campobasso）4,438 km²14. 皮埃蒙特（Piemonte）都靈（Torino）25,399 km²15. 薩?。⊿ardegna）卡利亞里（Cagliari）24,090 km²16. 西西里（Sicilia）巴勒莫（Palermo

15、）25,708 km²17. 特倫蒂諾-上阿迪杰（Trentino-Alto Adige）特倫托（Trento）13,607 km²18. 托斯卡納（Toscana）佛羅倫薩（Firenze）22,990 km²19. 翁布里亞（Umbria）佩魯賈（Perugia）8,456 km²20. 威 尼托（Veneto）威尼斯（Venezia）18,391 km²所謂的南部（中部）地區(qū)主要是上表中的：1. 阿布魯佐大區(qū)，全區(qū)分4個(gè)省：阿奎拉（L'Aquila）、泰拉莫（Teramo）、基耶蒂（Chieti）和佩斯卡拉（Pescara）；3.

16、 普利亞大區(qū)，全區(qū)5個(gè)?。喊屠锸　⒉紶柕衔魇?、福賈省、萊切省及塔蘭托??；4. 巴斯利卡塔大區(qū)，全區(qū)2個(gè)?。翰ㄌ共欤≒otenza）、馬泰拉（Matera）；5. 卡拉布里亞大區(qū)，全區(qū)5個(gè)?。嚎ㄌ乖_省、科森扎省、克羅托內(nèi)省、雷焦卡拉布里亞省、維博瓦倫蒂亞省6. 坎帕尼亞大區(qū)，全區(qū)分5個(gè)?。喊㈨f利諾?。ˋvellino）、貝內(nèi)文托?。˙enevento）、卡塞塔?。–aserta）、那不勒斯?。∟apoli）、薩萊諾省（Salerno）9. 拉齊奧(拉素)大區(qū)，全區(qū)分5個(gè)省：弗羅西諾內(nèi)省、拉蒂納省、列蒂省、羅馬省、維泰博??；12. 馬爾凱大區(qū)，全區(qū)分5個(gè)?。喊部萍{省、阿斯科利皮切諾省、費(fèi)爾莫省、

17、馬切拉塔省（古代皮切林地區(qū)全境）及佩薩羅和烏爾比諾省。其中佩薩羅和烏爾比諾省由兩個(gè)傳統(tǒng)上分開(kāi)的佩薩羅省及烏爾比諾省組成，以前是古羅馬的烏爾比諾行省。13. 莫利塞大區(qū)，全區(qū)2個(gè)?。嚎膊ò退魇　⒁寥麪柲醽喪?。18. 托斯卡納大區(qū)，全區(qū)2個(gè)?。?。19. 翁布里亞大區(qū)，全區(qū)2個(gè)?。?。Southern Italy (Italian: Italia Meridionale) or the Mezzogiorno (Midday) generally refers to the southern portion of the continental Italian peninsula and Sicily

18、, historically forming the Kingdom of Two Sicilies plus the island of Sardinia. It encompasses the modern regions of Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Apulia and Molise, which lie in Italy's south, and Abruzzo which is located in central Italy and the islands of Sicily and finally Sardinia (that i

19、s recognised as part of Mezzogiorno for economic reasons, because it benefited of Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, but it also belongs geographically to Insular Italy.45 Sardinia is culturally and historically close to Central and Northern Italy, as it was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and related to th

20、e Maritime Republics of Genoa and Pisa). Some would also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio (Sora, Cassino, Gaeta, Cittaducale, and Amatrice districts), which historically were part of the southern kingdom.Southern Italy boasts a unique, diverse and multicultural culture. It has ma

21、ny tourist attractions, such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, the Palace of Caserta, the Amalfi Coast and many more sites. Pompeii is one of the world's most visited tourist attractions6, and southern Italy is well known for its beautiful beaches and coastlines, rich art, culture, cuisine, literature an

22、d history, its numerous archaeological sites (many of which are protected by UNESCO) and its folkloric traditions. The history of Southern Italy boasts a numerous amount of great kings, queens, princes, popes, writers, poets, philosophers, knights, artists, architects, craftsmen, musicians, scholars

23、, scientists, politicians, farmers and leaders7.The term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies (Latin for 'south', because of the sun's position at midday in the northern hemisphere). "Mezzogiorno" was popularised by Giusepp

24、e Garibaldi and the term came into vogue after Italy's unification. It was sometimes associated with notions of poverty, illiteracy, and crime: stereotypes of the South that often persist to this day.8 The Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT) uses the term Southern Italy but excludes Sicily,

25、 which it groups with Sardinia as Insular Italy; this is the same grouping used for European parliament elections.GeographyFurther information: Geography of ItalySouthern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula, containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio), th

26、e toe (Calabria), and the heel (Apulia) along with the major islands (Sicily and Sardinia). Separating the "heel" and the "boot" is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto, which sits at the angle between the heel and the boot itself. It is an arm of the Ionian Sea.

27、The rest of the southern third of the Italian peninsula is studded with smaller gulfs and inlets.On the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto (named after the largest city on the tip of the heel). On the Adriatic, south of the &qu

28、ot;spur" of the boot, the peninsula of Monte Gargano; On Tirrenian sea, the Gulf of Salerno, the Gulf of Naples, the Gulf of Policastro and the Gulf of Gaeta are each named after a large coastal city. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan gulf, on the south of the Sorrentine peninsula, run

29、s the famous Amalfi Coast. Off the tip of the peninsula is the world-famous island of Capri.The climate is Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification Csa), except at the highest elevations (Dsa, Dsb) and the semi-arid eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria, and the sout

30、hern stretches of Sicily (BSw). The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a title it has historically maintained for centuries. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. Palermo would be the second largest city if one includes Sicily as part of s

31、outhern Italy. The region is geologically active, and on November 23, 1980 there was a massive earthquake that killed 300 people and left 3,000 others homeless. HistorySee also: Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of Naples, and Kingdom of Two SiciliesEver since the Greeks colonised Magna Graecia in the 8th

32、and 7th centuries BC, the south of Italy has, in many respects, followed a distinct history from the north. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BC, the south fell under Roman domination and remained in such a position well into the barbarian inva

33、sions (the Gladiator War is a notable suspension of imperial control). It was held by the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Rome in the West and even the Lombards failed to consolidate it, though the centre of the south was theirs from Zotto's conquest in the final quarter of the 6th century. A

34、malfi, an independent republic from the 7th century until 1075, and to a lesser extent Gaeta, Molfetta, and Trani, rivalled other Italian maritime republics in their domestic prosperity and maritime importance.Kingdom of Sicily in 1154. The borders remained virtually unchanged for the next 700 years

35、.Following the Gothic War (535554), and until the arrival of the Normans, much of southern Italy's destiny was linked to the fortunes of the Eastern Empire, even though Byzantine domination was challenged in the ninth century by the Lombards, who annexed the area of Cosenza to the Duchy of Benev

36、ento. Consequently, the Lombard South and the Byzantine areas became influenced by Eastern monasticism. Consequently, much of southern Italy experienced a slow process of orientalisation in religious life (rites, cults and liturgy), which accompanied a spread of Eastern churches and monasteries that

37、 preserved and transmitted the Greek and Hellenistic tradition (the Cattolica monastery in Stilo is the most representative of these Byzantine monuments).From then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and th

38、e Islamic Caliphate. The latter established several Islamic states in southern Italy, such as the Emirate of Sicily and Emirate of Bari. The Norman conquest of southern Italy completely subjugated the Lombard principalities, and overwhelmed the Byzantines from all but Naples, which ultimately gave i

39、n to Roger II in 1127. He raised the south to kingdom status in 1130, calling it the Kingdom of Sicily. The Normans retained harmonious control of their territory, and ran the kingdom of Sicily efficiently. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterised by its multi-ethnic nature and

40、religious tolerance.9 Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Longobards and "native" Sicilians lived in harmony. However, it lasted only 64 years before the Holy Roman Emperors long-held designs on the region came to fruition. The Hohenstaufen rule ended in defeat, but the conqueri

41、ng French of Charles of Anjou were themselves forcibly pushed out in the event immortalized as the Sicilian Vespers. Hereafter, until the union in Spain, the kingdom was split between the principalities of Naples on the mainland and of Sicily over the island. The Aragonese rule left its impression o

42、n Italy and the Renaissance through such figures as Alfonso the Magnanimous. With the unification of the crowns of Castile and Aragon in the late 15th century, southern Italy and Sicily ceased to have a local monarch and were ruled by viceroys appointed by the Spanish crown.The region remained a par

43、t of Spain until the War of the Spanish Succession, when Duke Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia took Sicily. It was soon exchanged with Austria for Sardinia. It became an independent kingdom for Charles of Bourbon and experienced a period of enlightenment with a local, flourishing royal court. In 1798 t

44、he French revolutionaries captured southern Italy and created the short-lived Parthenopaean Republic. Eventually, France created the Kingdom of Naples for the benefit of Napoleon's marshal Joachim Murat. An object of irredentism and the Risorgimento, the land was conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi

45、and the Redshirts in 1861 and, with the north, formed the modern state of Italy.The transition to a united Kingdom of Italy was not smooth for the South. The Southern economy was much more agrarian and feudal than the industrial northern economy (with few notable exceptions: Salerno, "the Manch

46、ester of the two Sicilies", could count in 1877 something like 10,000 textile workers, more than twice the textile labour of widely-known productive centers like Turin).citation needed Poverty and organized crime, though were persistent problems in Southern Italy as well. Because of this, the S

47、outh experienced great economic difficulties resulting in massive emigration leading to a worldwide Southern Italian diaspora. Many natives also relocated to the industrial cities in northern Italy, such as Genoa, Milan and Turin. A relative process of industrialisation has developed in some areas o

48、f the "Mezzogiorno" after World War II.In the 1946 referendum after the war, the region voted to keep the monarchy, with its greatest support coming in Campania. Politically, it is often at odds with Northern Italy, which won the referendum to establish a republic.10 Today, the South remai

49、ns less economically developed than the north and central regions, which enjoyed an "economic miracle" in the 1950s and 1960s and became highly industrialised. Some Southern Italian secession movements have developed, but have gained little, if any, significant influence. CulturePalermoReg

50、gio CalabriaThe regions of Southern Italy were exposed to some different historical influences than the rest of the peninsula, starting most notably with Greek colonisation. Greek influence in the South was dominant until Latinization was completed by the time of the Roman Principate. Greek influenc

51、es returned by the late Roman Empire, especially following the reconquests of Justinian and the Byzantine Empire.Sicily, a distinctive culture throughout the Middle Ages, was captured by Muslims and turned into an Emirate for a period, and via Sicily elements of progressive Islamic culture, architec

52、ture and science were introduced to Italy and Europe. The rest of the mainland was subject to a struggle of power among the Byzantines, Lombards, and Franks. In addition, the Venetians established outposts as trade with Byzantium and the Near East increased.Until the Norman conquests of the 11th and

53、 12th centuries much of the South followed Eastern rite (Greek) Christianity. The Normans who settled in Sicily and Southern Italy in the Middle Ages significantly impacted the architecture, religion and high culture of the region. Later, Southern Italy was subjected to rule by the new European nation states, first Aragon, then S