學(xué)位論文-—internet的歷史外文翻譯

1、外文資料原文The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ArpanetThe Internet started as a project by the US gover nment. The object of the project was to create a means of com muni cati ons betwee n long dista nee poin ts, in the eve nt of a n ati on wide emerge ncy or, more specifically, nu clear war. The

2、project was called Arpa net, and it is what the Internet started as. Fun ded specifically for military com mun icati on, the engin eers resp on sible for Arpa net had no idea of the possibilities of an I ntern et.By defi niti on, an Intern et is four or more computers conn ected by a n etwork.Arpane

3、t achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP The basics around this protocol was that if in formatio n sent over a n etwork failed to get through on one route, it would find ano ther route to work with, as well as establish ing a means for one computer to talk to ano ther computer, regar

4、dless of whether it was a PC or a Macin tosh.By the 80s Arpa net, just years away from beco ming the more well known Intern et, had 200 computer s. The Defense Department, satisfied with Arpanet s resultse cided to fully adopt it into service, and conn ected many military computers and resources int

5、o the n etwork. Arpa net then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its n etwork.In 1986 Arpanet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 Computers. It shut down due to

6、a failed link up with NSF, who wan ted to connect its 5 coun tywide super computers into Arpa net. With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully in stalled at li ne speeds of 56k (a no rmal modem no wadays) through teleph one lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers

7、 on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were 290,000. Ano ther n etwork was built to support the in credible nu mber of people joinin g. It was con structed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most importa nt tec

8、h no logical adva nceme nts in the history of huma ni ty. Every one wants to get o n lin e to experie nee the wealth of in formatio n of the Intern et. Milli ons of people now use the Intern et, and its predicted that by the year 2003 every sin gle pers on on the pla net will have Internet access. T

9、he Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolv ing so quickly its hard to determ ine where it will go n ext, as computer and n etwork tech no logy improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:Its a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games, conversing in virt

10、ual Internet environmen ts.The Internet is not a th in g itself. The Internet cannot just crash. It functions the same way as the teleph one system, only there is no Internet compa ny that runs the Intern et.The Internet is a collect ion of millio ns of computers that are all conn ected to each othe

11、r, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office n etwork, only it has millio ns of computers conn ected to it.The main thi ng about how the Internet works is com mun icati on. How does a computer in Houst on know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a

12、webpage?Internet com muni catio n, com mun icati on among computers conn ected to the Intern et, is based on a Ian guage. This Ian guage is called TCP/IP TCP/IP establishes a Ian guage for a computer to access and tran smit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical co

13、nnection betwee n one computer and ano ther. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a n etwork wire that went to every computer conn ected to the Intern et, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is required is established by way of modems, p

14、hone lin es, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and tran smit data over established lin es, which could be pho ne lines or data lin es. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serv

15、es as a traffic con troller for in formati on.To explai n this better, lets look at how a sta ndard computer might view a webpage.1. The users computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be conn ected to ano ther ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backb

16、 one.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet locati on to go to.3. Heres where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about its data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software.

17、The collect ion of routers in the world make what is called a backb on e, on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-sec ond. Such a speed compared to a no rmal modem is like compari ng the heat of the sun to the heat of

18、an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where its goi

19、ng, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eve ntually lead ing to the target computer. Its like whisper dow n the lane (on ly the in formatio n remai ns in tact).5. When the in formatio n reaches the target web server, the webserver the n begi ns

20、to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that han dles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user

21、 can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also con tain special in formatio n that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millio ns of web pages, and milli ons of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a

22、begi nning user, especially for some one who is not en tirely comfortable with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Intern et.Before you access WebPages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the WebPages. Most Internet Access

23、Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are view ing this page mea ns that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at and

24、 MSIE can be found at /ie.The fact that youre readi ng this right now mea ns that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using WebPages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To navigate a webpage, simply click t

25、he links it provides or follow its own in structi ons (like if it has a form you n eed to use, it will probably in struct you how to use it). Basically, everyth ing about a webpage is made to be self- expla natory. That is the n ature of a webpage, to be easily n avigatable.Oh no! a 404 error! Ca nn

26、ot find web page? is a com mon remark made by new web-users. Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the users fault, of course. A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being con structed and the page has nt

27、bee n created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. Theres nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-maili ng the site admi nistrator (of the page you wan ted to go to) an telli ng him/her about the error.A JavaScript error is the result of a program ming error in the Java

28、Script code of a website. Not all websites utilize JavaScript, but many do. JavaScript is different from Java, and most browsers now support JavaScript. If you are using an old vers ion of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get JavaScript errors because sites utilize JavaScript vers

29、ions that your browser does not support. So, you can try gett ing a n ewer version of your web browser.E-mail sta nds for Electr onic Mail, and thats what it is. E-mail en ables people to send letters, and eve n files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail clie nt, which i

30、s just like a pers onal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail.Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail acco un t(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After con figuri ng your e-mail clie nt with yo

31、ur POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that in formati on), you are ready to receive mail.An attachme nt is a file sent in a letter. If some one sends you an attachme nt and you dont know who it is, dont run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of n ast

32、y programs. You cant get a virus just by reading e-mail, youll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A sig nature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A sig nature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your bus in ess in format

33、io n, anything you want.Imagi ne that a computer on the Intern et is an isla nd in the sea. The sea is filled with millio ns of isla nds. This is the Intern et. Imagi ne an isla nd com mun icates with other isla nd by sending ships to other isla nds and receiv ing ships. The isla nd has ports to acc

34、ept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access no des called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a n etwork (or the Intern et). This method is similar to the isla nd/ocea n symbolism above.Telnet refers to access ing ports on a server directly

35、 with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages, chatting, and e-mailing is done over a Telnet conn ecti on.Rele nti ng requires a Telnet clie nt. A tel net program comes with the Win dows system, so Win dows users can access telnet by typing in te In et (wi

36、thout the s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the comma nd line; tel net. A popular telnet program for Macin tosh is NCSA tel net.Any server software (web page daem on, chat daem on) can be accessed via teln et, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For in st

37、a nee, it is possible to conn ect directly to a mail server and check your mail by in terfaci ng with the e-mail server software, but its easier to use an e-mail clie nt (of course).There are millio ns of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page yo

38、u want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search its own database of websites. For in sta nee, if you wan ted to find a website on dogs, youd search for dog or dogs or dog in formati on. Here are a few search-e ngin es.1. AltaVista (http:/www.a

39、) - Web spider & In dexed2. Yahoo () - Web spider & In dexed Collectio n3. Excite () - Web spider & In dexed4. Lycos (http:/www .ly ) - Web spider & In dexed5. Metasearch () - Multiple searchA web spider is a p

40、rogram used by search engines that goes from page to page, follow ing any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as its own time and speed allows for.An in dexed collect ion uses han d-added lin ks. For in sta nee, on Yahoos site. You

41、 can click on Computers & the Intern et. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sect ions, there are sites available which relate to what sect ion youre in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from ab

42、out 10 search engin es, making searchi ng a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engin es, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of n etwork ing and multi user systems, security has always bee n on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the daw

43、n of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have bee n known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of break ing into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since n etwork ing was limited to big corporate compa nies or gover nment computers who could afford the n ecessary computer secur

44、ity.The biggest problem no w-a-days is pers onal in formati on. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Lets look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the info

45、rmation, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backb one. The in formati on is in little chu nks, in packages called packets. Heres the problem: While the in formatio n is being tran sferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a hacker from intercepti

46、ng this data stream at one of the backb one poin ts?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of pote ntial threats while tran smitt ing private in formatio n. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protecti on, an most importa ntly, en crypt

47、i on.En crypti on means scrambli ng data into a code that can only be un scrambled on the other end. Browsers like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-Iine transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advaneed encryption system is cal

48、led DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to crack that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into ano ther coun tries han ds.A DES uses a sin gle key of in formatio n to uni ock an en tire docume nt. The prob

49、lem is, there are 75 trilli on possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One docume nt was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of 14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers dont have that many resources available.外文

50、資料譯文In ternet的歷史起源Arpa netIn ternet是被美國政府作為一項(xiàng)工程進(jìn)行開發(fā)的。這項(xiàng)工程的目的，是為了建立遠(yuǎn)距離之間點(diǎn)與點(diǎn)的通信，以便處理國家軍事范圍內(nèi)的緊急事件，例如核戰(zhàn)爭。這項(xiàng)工程被命名為Arpanet，它就是In ternet 的前身。建立此工程的主要應(yīng)用對象就是軍事通訊，那些負(fù) 責(zé)Arpanet的工程師們當(dāng)時(shí)也沒有想到它將成為In ternet ”。根據(jù)定義，一個In ternet ”應(yīng)該由四或者更多的計(jì)算機(jī)連接起來的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。Arpanet是通過一種叫TCP/IP的協(xié)議實(shí)現(xiàn)連網(wǎng)工作的。此協(xié)議最基礎(chǔ)的工作原理是： 如果信息在網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的一條路徑發(fā)送失敗，那么它將找到其

51、他路徑進(jìn)行發(fā)送，就好象建立一種語言以便一臺計(jì)算機(jī)與其他計(jì)算機(jī)交談”一樣，但不注意它是PC,或是Macintosh。到了 20世紀(jì)80年代，Arpanet已經(jīng)開始變成目前更為有名的In ternet了，它擁有200臺在線主機(jī)。國防部很滿意 Arpanet的成果，于是決定全力將它培養(yǎng)為能夠聯(lián)系很多軍事主 機(jī)，資源共享的服務(wù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)。到了1984年，它就已經(jīng)超過 1000臺主機(jī)在線了。在1986年Arpanet關(guān)閉了，但僅僅是建立它的機(jī)構(gòu)關(guān)閉了，而網(wǎng)絡(luò)繼續(xù)存在與超過1000臺的主機(jī)之間。由于使用NSF連接失敗，Arpanet才被關(guān)閉。NSF是將5個國家范圍內(nèi)的超級計(jì)算機(jī)連入Arpanet。隨著NSF的建

52、立，新的高速的傳輸介質(zhì)被成功的使用，在1988年，用戶能通過56k的電話線上網(wǎng)。在那個時(shí)候有 28，174臺主機(jī)連入In ternet 。到了 1989年有80，000臺主機(jī) 連入In ternet 。至U 1989年末，就有 290，000臺主機(jī)連入了。另外還有其他網(wǎng)絡(luò)被建立，并支持用戶以驚人的數(shù)量接入。于1992年正式建立。現(xiàn)狀I(lǐng)nternet如今，In ternet已經(jīng)成為人類歷史上最先進(jìn)技術(shù)的一種。每個人都想“上網(wǎng)”去體驗(yàn)一下In ternet 中的信息財(cái)富。成千上百的人都用In ternet 。預(yù)計(jì)，到了 2003年世界上的每個人，都將擁有In ternet接入。In ternet已

53、經(jīng)真正成為我們這個年代生活的一部分。由 于計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)每天都在改變，我們很難想象In ternet下一步將發(fā)展成什么樣子。工作原理：現(xiàn)在，人們用In ternet是一件很平常的事。他們通過In ternet進(jìn)行購物、玩游戲、聊天等娛樂活動。In ternet不僅僅是一件事物。In ternet也會崩潰。它的工作原理如同電話通信系統(tǒng)，只不過沒有專門的In ternet 公司來經(jīng)營In ternet 。In ternet是成千上萬臺計(jì)算機(jī)互相連接的集合。In ternet 就像是辦公網(wǎng)絡(luò)一樣，不同的是，它有成千上萬臺計(jì)算機(jī)相連接。其中最主要的是In ternet 是如何進(jìn)行通信的。位于Ho

54、ust on的一臺計(jì)算機(jī)是如何通過瀏覽網(wǎng)頁而能與位于 Tokyo的計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)通信的呢？In ternet信息，擁有信息的計(jì)算機(jī)連接到In ternet ，是基于語言。這種語言叫做TCP/IP。TCP/IP建立了一種語言，能使計(jì)算機(jī)在In ternet系統(tǒng)中傳送數(shù)據(jù)。但是TCP/IP的取得也必須具備兩臺電腦之間的物理連接。當(dāng)然也未必都是這樣。但也 必須存在一根網(wǎng)絡(luò)線將主機(jī)與In ternet連接起來，但做到這樣，還是不可能與In ternet連接的。物理連接要求通過 MODEM電話線和其他類似MODE的連接（如 DSL）來建立。計(jì)算機(jī)上的MODE通過已建立的通信線進(jìn)行收發(fā)數(shù)據(jù)，通信線可以是電

55、話線或是數(shù)據(jù)線。事實(shí)上計(jì)算機(jī)之間建立連接的硬核被成為路由器。路由器就是計(jì)算機(jī)中進(jìn)行信息交互的管理器。為了更好的對它說明，讓我們來看看一臺標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的計(jì)算機(jī)是怎樣瀏覽網(wǎng)頁的？1、 用戶計(jì)算機(jī)撥號進(jìn)入ISP。而此ISP可能還要連接入其他ISP,或是直接進(jìn)入In ternet 主干。2、 用戶打開網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器如NETSCAP或是IE。3、 接下來是進(jìn)入In ternet的棘手部分。首先，用戶計(jì)算機(jī)相路由器發(fā)出請求。路由器 是一種高速高效的計(jì)算機(jī)運(yùn)行的專門軟件。世界上所有路由的連接便形成了In ternet的主 干，在這里傳送In ternet 上的所有數(shù)據(jù)。目前主干網(wǎng)上的處理速度為每秒幾千兆字節(jié)。這 樣的速

56、度分配到一只 MODEI上，就好比太陽光的熱量分配到一塊冰上的熱量一樣。4、路由器發(fā)送或接受數(shù)據(jù)。它將一小段數(shù)據(jù)分別打包，形成數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)，就像包裹一樣。因此，當(dāng)請求網(wǎng)頁瀏覽是，就用TCP/IP協(xié)議告訴路由器如何處理這些數(shù)據(jù)，將這些數(shù)據(jù)發(fā)送去哪里，用戶主要想去哪里。5、路由器將這些數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)發(fā)送給其他的路由器，最終轉(zhuǎn)到目標(biāo)主機(jī)上。就像傳耳語的游戲一樣（當(dāng)然，只有完整的信息才能被傳送）。6、當(dāng)信息到達(dá)目標(biāo)網(wǎng)頁的服務(wù)器是，服務(wù)器就開始將網(wǎng)頁信息發(fā)送回去。一臺網(wǎng)頁服務(wù)器，就是網(wǎng)頁存儲所在的計(jì)算機(jī)，它能對網(wǎng)頁進(jìn)行編輯，并將它發(fā)送給用戶。網(wǎng)頁被分成數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)，通過路由器，最終到達(dá)用戶計(jì)算機(jī)，這樣，用戶就能瀏覽網(wǎng)頁了。

57、數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)中含有相 關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù)以及一些必須的信息讓路由器或其他計(jì)算機(jī)知道如何將數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)按正確的順序重新組裝成原始的數(shù)據(jù)段。有了成千上萬的網(wǎng)頁和成千上萬的用戶，對于初學(xué)者來說使用In ternet將不再那么容易，尤其是那些不太精通電腦的人。 接下來，你將能找到一些上網(wǎng)的小技巧和使用 In ternet 主要服務(wù)的幫助。在你打開網(wǎng)頁之前，你必須有一個網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器用于瀏覽網(wǎng)頁。大部分網(wǎng)絡(luò)服務(wù)商都會給用戶提供一個網(wǎng)絡(luò)瀏覽器。當(dāng)你在瀏覽網(wǎng)頁時(shí)，其實(shí)就是在使用瀏覽器。目前使用最廣泛的網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器是 Netscape和MSIE。Netscape能自動連接到 ， MSIE能自動 連接 ww

58、 。接下來你就必須熟悉如何使用網(wǎng)頁。網(wǎng)頁是超鏈接、圖片、文本、表格、按鈕以及多媒 體的集合。只需點(diǎn)擊網(wǎng)頁提供的連接或是按照網(wǎng)頁的步驟（比如，如果你需要用網(wǎng)頁中的一張表，旁邊就會有使用這張表的幫助）做，你就可以進(jìn)行網(wǎng)上沖浪了?；旧?，網(wǎng)頁中的每 個元素都可以自我移植?！芭叮?！又是404出錯！不能找到相關(guān)網(wǎng)頁”這是上網(wǎng)初學(xué)者中很普通的言論。 有時(shí)網(wǎng)站也會出錯。當(dāng)然網(wǎng)站的錯誤跟用戶的操作沒有關(guān)系。404出錯意思是你想找的那個網(wǎng)頁不存在。這有可能是因?yàn)榫W(wǎng)站仍在建設(shè)中，頁面還沒 有被創(chuàng)建，或者是因?yàn)榫W(wǎng)站的制作者正在對頁面進(jìn)行修改。當(dāng)出現(xiàn)404出錯時(shí)，除了對網(wǎng)站管理發(fā)電子郵件，告訴他/她關(guān)于出錯的問題，就別無他法了。Javascript出錯是由于網(wǎng)站中的 Javascript的程序代碼出錯造成的。并非所有的網(wǎng)頁都使用Javascript ，但有很多是用 Javascript 的。Javascript 不同于JAVA目前大部分 瀏覽器都支持J