（完整版）大學(xué)學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)讀寫教程下冊(cè)課文翻譯

（完整版）大學(xué)學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)讀寫教程下冊(cè)課文翻譯Reading1WHATISSTRESS?Thetermstresshasbeendefinedinseveraldifferentways.sometimesthetermisappliedtostimulioreventsinourenvironmentthatmakephysicalandemotionaldemandsonus,andsometimesitisappliedtoouremotionalandphysicalreactionstosuchstimuli.inthisdiscussion,wewillrefertotheenvironmentalstimulioreventsasstressorsandtotheemotionalandphysicalreactionsasstress.壓力這個(gè)詞已經(jīng)有幾種不同的定義。有時(shí)候這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)適用于我們環(huán)境中的刺激或事件，這些刺激或事件會(huì)對(duì)我們產(chǎn)生身體和情感方面的要求，有時(shí)也適用于我們對(duì)這種刺激的情緒和身體反應(yīng)。在這個(gè)討論中，我們將環(huán)境刺激或事件稱為壓力，并將情緒和身體上的反應(yīng)稱為壓力。Manysortsofeventsbestressors,includingdisasters,suchashurricanesortornadoes;majorlifeevents,suchasdivorceorthelossofajob;anddailyhassles,suchashavingtowaitinlineatthesupermarketwhenyouneedtobesomewhereelsein10minutes.Whatallthiseventshaveincommonisthattheyinterferewithorthreatouraccustomedwayoflife.whenweencountersuchstressors,wemustpulltogetherourmentalandphysicalresourcesinordertodealwiththechallenge.Howwellwesucceedindoingsowilldeterminehowseriousatollthestresswilltakeonourmentalandphysicalwell-being.許多事件都是壓力源，包括災(zāi)難，如颶風(fēng)或龍卷風(fēng);重大生活事件，如離婚或失業(yè);每天都有麻煩，比如當(dāng)你要在10分鐘內(nèi)到別的地方去卻不得不在超市排隊(duì)等。所有這些事件都有共同之處，就是它們干涉或威脅我們習(xí)慣的生活方式。當(dāng)我們遇到這樣的壓力時(shí)，我們必須整合我們的精神和物質(zhì)資源來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)挑戰(zhàn)。我們?nèi)绾纬晒Φ刈龅竭@一點(diǎn)將決定壓力對(duì)我們身心健康將產(chǎn)生多大的影響。ReactingtostressorsTheCanadianphysiologistHansSeylehasbeenthemostinfluentialwriteronstress.Seyleproposedthatbothhumansandotheranimalsreacttoanystressorinthreestages,collectivelyknownasthegeneraladaptationsyndrome.thefirststage,whenthepersonoranimalbecomesawareofthestressoristhealarmreaction.Inthisstagetheorganismbecomeshighlyalertandaroused,energizedbyaburstofepinephrine.Afterthealarmreactioncomesthestageofresistance,astheorganismtriestoadapttothestressfulstimulusortoescapefromit.Iftheseeffortsaresuccessful,thestateoftheorganismreturnstonormal.Iftheorganismcannotadapttothecontinuingstress,however,itentersastageofexhaustionorcollapse.加拿大生理學(xué)家HansSeyle在壓力方面一直是最有影響力的作家。塞爾提出，人類和其他動(dòng)物在三個(gè)階段對(duì)任何壓力源作出反應(yīng)，統(tǒng)稱為一般適應(yīng)綜合癥。第一階段，當(dāng)人或動(dòng)物意識(shí)到應(yīng)激源時(shí)，就是警報(bào)反應(yīng)。在這個(gè)階段，機(jī)體變得高度警覺(jué)和激起，并被一陣腎上腺素所激發(fā)。當(dāng)警報(bào)反應(yīng)進(jìn)入抵抗階段后，機(jī)體試圖適應(yīng)壓力刺激或逃避壓力。如果這些努力成功，機(jī)體的狀態(tài)就會(huì)恢復(fù)正常。然而，如果生物體不能適應(yīng)持續(xù)的壓力，它就進(jìn)入衰竭或崩潰的階段。Seyledevelopedhismodelofthegeneraladaptationsyndromeasaresultofresearchwithratsandotheranimals.Inrats,certainstressors,suchaspainfultail-pullingconsistentlyledtothesamesortsofstressreactionsinhumans,however,itishardertopredictwhatwillbestressfultoaparticularpersonataparticulartime.Whetheraparticularstimuluswillbestressfuldependsontheperson’ssubjectiveappraisalofthatstimulus.Howthreateningisit?HowwellhaveIhandledthissortofthinginthepast?howwellwillIbeabletohandleitthistime?foroneperson,beingcalledontogiveatalkinfrontofaclassisahighlystressfulstimulusthatwillimmediatelyproducesuchelementsasapoundingheartandadrymouth.foranotherperson,beingcalledontogiveatalkisnotthreateningatall,butfacingadeadlinetocompleteatermpaperisextremelystressful.inhumans,moreover,thespecificstressreactionislikelytovarywidely;somestressfulsituationsgiverisepredominantlytoemotionsoffear,somegiverisetoanger,andsomegiverisetohelplessnessanddepression.由于對(duì)老鼠和其他動(dòng)物的研究，Seyle開發(fā)了他的一般適應(yīng)綜合征模型。在老鼠身上，某些壓力因素，比如痛苦的尾巴拉扯，一直導(dǎo)致和人類出現(xiàn)同樣的壓力反應(yīng)，然而，在特定的時(shí)間很難預(yù)測(cè)什么會(huì)對(duì)某個(gè)人造成壓力。一個(gè)特定的刺激是否會(huì)產(chǎn)生壓力取決于該人對(duì)該刺激的主觀評(píng)價(jià)。這有多大威脅？我過(guò)去如何處理這類事情？這次我能處理多好？對(duì)于一個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)，在班級(jí)面前講話是一種高度壓力的刺激，會(huì)立即產(chǎn)生心跳和口干等元素。對(duì)另一個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)，講話根本不是威脅，但是面對(duì)完成學(xué)期論文的期限是非常緊張的。此外，在人類中，特定的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)可能差異很大;一些壓力的情況主要是恐懼情緒，一些引起憤怒，一些引起無(wú)助和沮喪。Reading2COPINGWITHSTRESS應(yīng)對(duì)壓力ItisFridayeveningandtwoyounglawyersgetphonecallsathome.Thetrialdataforanimportantcasehasbeenmovedup.BothofthelawyerswillnowhavetoprepareareportforthecasebyMondaymorning.Itisathreateningsituationforboth.Eachmustdoextensiveresearchandwriteacomplexdocumentofsome40pages,allinasingleweekend.furthermore,eachknowsthatherworkwillbeevaluatedbythefirm’spartners,andhowwellshedoesmaygreatlyinfluenceherfutureinthefirm.現(xiàn)在是星期五晚上，兩位年輕律師在家接到了電話。一個(gè)重要案件的審判數(shù)據(jù)已被公布。現(xiàn)在兩位律師都必須在星期一早上準(zhǔn)備一份報(bào)告。這對(duì)雙方都是一種威脅。每個(gè)人都必須進(jìn)行廣泛的研究，并在一個(gè)周末內(nèi)完成大約40頁(yè)的復(fù)雜文檔。此外，每個(gè)人都知道她的工作將由公司的合作伙伴進(jìn)行評(píng)估，而且她做得如何可能極大地影響她在公司的未來(lái)。Oneofthelawyersfindsthesituationextremelystressful;shefeelstremendousanxiety,experiencesheadachesandstomachupset,andhasdifficultyworking.shesomehowmanagestoproduceareport,butsheisnotatallhappywithit.theotherlawyer,althoughshetoofeelsthepressureofthesituation,seesitnotsomuchasathreatbutasachallenge-anopportunitytoshowhowgoodsheis.shemovesintothefirm’sofficesfortheweekendandsleepingonlythreehoursanight,completesabrilliantreportwithaclearmindandasurgeofenergy.asthisexamplehelpsillustrate,stressiscausednotsomuchbyeventsthemselvesasbythewaysinwhichpeopleperceiveandreacttoevents.其中一位律師認(rèn)為情況極其緊張;她感到非常焦慮，經(jīng)歷頭痛，胃部不適，而且很難工作。她以某種方式設(shè)法做出報(bào)告，但她對(duì)此并不滿意。另一位律師雖然也感受到了這種情況的壓力，但并不認(rèn)為這是一種威脅，而是一種挑戰(zhàn)-一個(gè)顯示她有多好的機(jī)會(huì)。她周末進(jìn)入公司辦公室，每晚只睡三個(gè)小時(shí)，精神清醒，精力充沛，完成了一篇精彩的報(bào)告。正如這個(gè)有力的例子說(shuō)明的那樣，壓力不是由事件本身引起的，而是由人們對(duì)事件的感知和反應(yīng)的方式引起的。Degreeofcontrol控制程度Animportantinfluenceonpeople’sabilitytocopewithstressfulsituationsisthedegreeofcontrolthattheyfeeltheycanexerciseoverthesituation.bothanimalsandhumanshavebeenfoundtocopebetterwithpainfulorthreateningstimuliwhentheyfeeltheycanexercisesomedegreeofcontrolratherthanbeingpassiveandhelplessvictims.suchasenseofcontrolcanhelpminimizethenegativeconsequencesofstress,bothpsychologicalandphysical.inonewell-knownexperiment,JayWeissadministeredelectricshockstopairsofrats.Ineachpair,oneofthetwoanimalswasgivenadegreeofcontroloverthesituation;itcouldreachthroughaholeinthecageandpressapanelthatwouldturnofftheshockbothforitselfandforitspartner.Thus,thetworatsreceivedexactlythesamenumberofshocks,butonewaspassiveandhelpless,andtheotherwasincontrol.afteracontinuous21-hoursession,theanimalsweresacrificedandtheirstomachsexaminedforulcers.thoseratsthatcouldexertcontrolhadmuchlessulcerationthantheirhelplesspartners.人們應(yīng)對(duì)壓力的能力的一個(gè)重要影響是他們覺(jué)得自己可以對(duì)局勢(shì)進(jìn)行控制的程度。當(dāng)動(dòng)物和人類覺(jué)得自己可以行使某種程度的控制權(quán)，而不是被動(dòng)和無(wú)助的受害者時(shí)，動(dòng)物和人類都能更好地應(yīng)對(duì)痛苦或威脅的刺激。這種控制感可以幫助最大限度地減少心理和生理壓力的負(fù)面影響。在一個(gè)眾所周知的實(shí)驗(yàn)中，杰伊·韋斯（JayWeiss）對(duì)成對(duì)的老鼠進(jìn)行電擊。在每一對(duì)中，兩只動(dòng)物中的一只受到一定程度的控制，它可以通過(guò)籠子里的一個(gè)洞，并按下一個(gè)面板，可以為自己和它的伙伴關(guān)閉震動(dòng)。因此，這兩只老鼠受到的沖擊數(shù)量完全相同，但是一只被動(dòng)無(wú)助，另一只控制住了。連續(xù)21小時(shí)后，將動(dòng)物處死并檢查其胃部是否潰瘍。那些可以控制的老鼠比他們無(wú)助的伴侶潰瘍要少得多。Theabilitytocontrolpainfulstimulioftenbenefitshumans,too.Forexample,theloudmusiccomingintoyourearsfromyouriPodisprobablynotstressful;infact,it'squiteenjoyable.butthesamemusiccomingfromyourneighbor'shousecanbeterriblyandstressful.merelyknowingthatonecancontrolanoisemakesitlessbothersome.That’sonereasonwhyyourloudmusicdoesnotbotheryou-youknowyoucanturnitoff.控制疼痛刺激的能力也經(jīng)常使人類受益。例如，從你的iPod進(jìn)入你的耳朵大聲的音樂(lè)可能沒(méi)有壓力，事實(shí)上，這是相當(dāng)愉快的。但是來(lái)自你鄰居家的同樣的音樂(lè)可能會(huì)讓你非常緊張。只知道一個(gè)人能控制噪音會(huì)減少麻煩。這就是為什么你的嘈雜音樂(lè)不會(huì)打擾你-你知道你可以把它關(guān)掉。Predictability可預(yù)測(cè)性Evenwhenyoucannotcontrolthem,unpleasanteventstendtobelessstressfuliftheyarepredictable-ifyouatleastknowwhentheywilloccur.ThiswasdemonstratedbyWeissinanotherstudywithrats.Onegroupofratsheardabuzzerabout10secondsbeforetheywouldreceiveashock;althoughtheanimalscouldnotescapetheshockatleasttheyhadachancetopreparethemselvesfortheexpectedpain.Asecondgroupofratsreceivednosuchwarnings;Theshockscameunpredictably.Weissfoundthattheratsthatwereforewarnedoftheshocksdevelopedfewerulcersthantheratsthatwerenotforewarned.Thisfindinghasparallelsinhumanlife.thedeathofalovedone,forexample,isusuallylesstraumaticwhenitisanticipatedthanwhenitisunexpected.Onalesstragiclevel,manystudentsfindsurprisequizzestobemoreupsettingthanscheduledquizzesthattheycanpreparefor.即使你無(wú)法控制他們，如果不愉快的事件是可預(yù)測(cè)的，那么往往會(huì)減輕壓力-如果你至少知道他們什么時(shí)候會(huì)發(fā)生。Weiss在另外一項(xiàng)關(guān)于老鼠的研究中證實(shí)了這一點(diǎn)。一組老鼠在接到電擊前約10秒鐘聽到蜂鳴聲，雖然動(dòng)物至少不能逃避震蕩，但他們有機(jī)會(huì)為預(yù)期的痛苦做好準(zhǔn)備。第二組老鼠沒(méi)有收到這樣的警告;沖擊變得難以預(yù)料。Weiss發(fā)現(xiàn)，預(yù)先警告的老鼠發(fā)生的潰瘍比沒(méi)有預(yù)先警告的老鼠要少。這一發(fā)現(xiàn)與人類生活相似。例如，所愛(ài)的人的死亡在預(yù)期的時(shí)候通常沒(méi)有比在意想不到的時(shí)候痛苦。在不那么悲慘的水平上，許多學(xué)生發(fā)現(xiàn)突擊測(cè)驗(yàn)比他們可以準(zhǔn)備的定期測(cè)驗(yàn)更令人不安。Personalityfactors個(gè)性因素Aresomepeoplegenerallybetterthanothersatcopingwithstress?Researchsuggeststhattheanswerisyes-thatthereisacertainkindofpersonwhohasarelativelystress-resistantpersonality.TheleadingresearcherinthisfieldhasbeenSuzanneKobasa.Dr.Kobasafoundthatpeoplewhocopewellwithstresstendtohavethreecharacteristics:Theyarecommittedtowhattheyaredoing,theyfeelincontrol(ratherthanpowerless),andtheywelcomemoderateamountsofchangeandchallenge.Instudiesofpeoplefacingstressfulsituations,Kobasaandherassociatesfoundthatthosewithstress-resistantpersonalities-thatis,thosewhoarehighincommitment,control,andchallenge-experiencefewerphysicalillnessesthanthosewhosepersonalitiesarelesshardly.有些人一般比其他人更好地應(yīng)付壓力嗎？研究表明答案是肯定的-有某種人具有相應(yīng)對(duì)抗壓力的性格。這個(gè)領(lǐng)域的領(lǐng)先研究者是SuzanneKobasa。Kobasa博士發(fā)現(xiàn)，處理壓力的人傾向于有三個(gè)特點(diǎn)：他們致力于他們正在做的事情，他們感到可控的（而不是無(wú)能為力），他們歡迎適度的變化和挑戰(zhàn)。在面對(duì)壓力情況的人們的研究中，Kobasa和她的同事發(fā)現(xiàn)那些有抗性的個(gè)性-即那些高度承諾，控制和挑戰(zhàn)的人-比那些性格不那么強(qiáng)壯的人經(jīng)歷更少的身體疾病。Untilquiterecently,itwasgenerallybelievedthattomaintaingoodhealthpeopleshouldstrivetoavoidstressorsintheirlives.Suchastrategycanbequitelimiting,however.Thedesiretoavoidstressmayalsoleadpeopletoavoidpotentiallybeneficialchangesintheirlives,suchasjobchangesorpromotions.Moreover,theattempttoavoidstressisoftenunrealistic.How,forexample,canapersonavoidsuchshocksasaparentsdeath?infact,ifpeopledonotconfrontacertainamountofstressintheirlives,theywillendupbeingboredandunstimulated,whichalsocanbephysicallyharmful.Inthelastanalysis,eachpersonneedstocometotermswithstressinhisorherownway,sometimestryingtoavoidit,butsometimesacceptingitorevenseekingitoutasachallengetobemastered.直到最近，人們普遍認(rèn)為，要保持良好的健康，人們應(yīng)該努力避免生活中的壓力。然而，這樣的策略可能相當(dāng)有限。避免壓力的愿望也可能導(dǎo)致人們避免潛在的有益的生活變化，如工作變動(dòng)或晉升。而且，避免壓力的嘗試往往是不現(xiàn)實(shí)的。例如，一個(gè)人如何避免父母死亡這樣的沖擊？事實(shí)上，如果人們?cè)谏钪胁幻鎸?duì)一定的壓力，他們最終會(huì)感到無(wú)聊和沒(méi)有受到刺激，這也會(huì)造成身體上的傷害。在最后的分析中，每個(gè)人都需要用自己的方式來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)壓力，有時(shí)試圖避免壓力，但有時(shí)候會(huì)接受壓力，甚至把壓力看作是一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)。Reading3STRESSANDILLNESS壓力和疾病Inmanystressfulsituations,thebody'sresponsecanimproveourperformance–webecomemorealert,andbetterabletotakeeffectiveaction.Butwhenstressisencounteredcontinually,thebody'sreactionsaremorelikelytobeharmfulthanhelpfultous.Aswillbeseenlaterinthisunit,theproductionofstress-relatedhormonesseemstomakepeoplemoresusceptibletoheartdisease.Andstressreactionscanreducethedisease-fightingeffectivenessofthebody'simmunesystem,therebyincreasingsusceptibilitytoillnesses,rangingfromcoldstocancer.Otherdiseasesthatcanresultatleastinpartfromstressincludearthritis,asthma,migraineheadaches,andulcers.Workerswhoexperiencethegreatestamountofjobpressurehavebeenfoundtobeespeciallylikelytosufferfromalargenumberofillnesses.Moreover,manystudieshaveshownthatpeoplewhohaveexperiencedmajorchangesintheirlivesareatanunusuallyhighriskforavarietyofillnesses.在許多緊張的情況下，身體的反應(yīng)可以改善我們的表現(xiàn)-我們變得更加警覺(jué)，并且能夠更好地采取有效行動(dòng)。但是當(dāng)壓力持續(xù)不斷，身體的反應(yīng)更有可能是有害的，而不是對(duì)我們有幫助。正如本單元稍后將會(huì)看到的那樣，壓力相關(guān)激素的產(chǎn)生似乎使人們更易患心臟病。而壓力反應(yīng)會(huì)降低人體免疫系統(tǒng)的抗病能力，從而增加感染疾病的可能性，從感冒到癌癥。其他可導(dǎo)致壓力的疾病包括關(guān)節(jié)炎，哮喘，偏頭痛和潰瘍。發(fā)現(xiàn)工作壓力最大的工作人員特別容易患上大量的疾病。此外，許多研究表明，那些經(jīng)歷過(guò)重大變化的人，患上各種疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)非常高。Asanexampleofstress-inducedillness,takethecaseofstomachulcers,smalllesionsinthestomachwallthatafflictoneoutofeverytwentypeopleatsomepointintheirlives.Ulcersareacommondisorderamongpeoplewhoworkinoccupationsthatmakeheavypsychologicaldemandsfromassemblylineworkerstoair-trafficcontrollers.Insuchcases,stresstendstobetheculprit.Stressleadstoincreasedsecretionofhydrochloricacidinthestomach.Hydrochloricacidnormallyhelpstobreakdownfoodsduringdigestion,butinexcessamountsitcaneatawayatthestomachlining,producingulcers.以壓力引起的疾病為例，以胃潰瘍?yōu)槔?，胃壁中的小病灶在生命中某一時(shí)刻每20人中就有一人受到折磨。在人們的工作中，從從事流水線工作人員到空中交通管制員都有強(qiáng)烈的心理需求，他們中潰瘍是一種常見的疾病。在這種情況下，壓力往往是罪魁禍?zhǔn)?。壓力?dǎo)致胃酸分泌增加。鹽酸通常有助于在消化過(guò)程中分解食物，但是過(guò)量的話，它可以在胃里吃掉，產(chǎn)生潰瘍。Stressandcancer壓力與癌癥Oneoftheleastunderstooddiseases,andpartlyforthatreasononeofthemostfeared,iscancer,whichisthesecondleadingcauseofdeathinAmerica.Medicalscientistsandresearchersarestilltryingtounderstandthebiologicalmechanismsofcellbehaviorthatunderlietheonsetanddevelopmentofcancer.However,studiesseemtosuggestthattheremaybelinksbetweenemotionsandcancer.最不了解的、部分由于這個(gè)原因最令人害怕的疾病之一是癌癥，這是美國(guó)的第二大死亡原因。醫(yī)學(xué)科學(xué)家和研究人員仍在試圖了解細(xì)胞行為的生物學(xué)機(jī)制，這是癌癥發(fā)病和發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)。然而，研究似乎表明情緒和癌癥之間可能有聯(lián)系。Theselinksinvolvethefunctioningofthebody’simmunesystem,acollectionofbillionsofcellsthattravelthroughthebloodstreamanddefendthebodyagainstinvasionbyforeignagents,includingbacteriaandviruses,andagainstcellsthatbecomecancerous.Psychologicalfactorscaninfluenceimmunefunctioningandthefieldofresearchontheseinfluencesiscalledpsychoimmunology.Itisbelievedthatsmallcancersformfrequentlyineveryone,butourimmunesystemusuallyrejectsthem.However,prolongedstressmayleadtoelevatedlevelsofcorticosteroidsandtolowerlevelsoftheneurotransmitternorepinephrineinthebrain.Theseandotherchangesapparentlymakeitharderfortheimmunesystemtorejectcancercells.Whentheorganismcopeswiththestressinanactiveway,thesechangesintheimmunesystemseemtobeminimizedwhentheorganismreactswithhelplessnessanddepression,thechangesaremaximized.這些環(huán)節(jié)涉及人體免疫系統(tǒng)的功能，匯集在血液中的數(shù)十億細(xì)胞，保護(hù)機(jī)體免受包括細(xì)菌和病毒在內(nèi)的外來(lái)物質(zhì)的侵襲，抵御癌細(xì)胞的侵襲。心理因素會(huì)影響免疫功能，對(duì)這些影響的研究領(lǐng)域稱為心理免疫學(xué)。人們相信每個(gè)人都會(huì)經(jīng)常形成小癌癥，但是我們的免疫系統(tǒng)通常會(huì)排斥他們。然而，長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的壓力可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致皮質(zhì)類固醇水平升高，并導(dǎo)致腦內(nèi)神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)去甲腎上腺素水平降低。這些和其他的變化顯然使免疫系統(tǒng)更難排斥癌細(xì)胞。當(dāng)機(jī)體以一種積極的方式應(yīng)對(duì)壓力時(shí)，免疫系統(tǒng)中的這些變化似乎被最小化，當(dāng)機(jī)體以無(wú)助和抑郁癥反應(yīng)時(shí)，這些變化會(huì)被最大化。AnimalstudiesTheselinksbetweenstress,helplessness,immunefunction,andcancerhavebeendemonstratedexperimentallyinstudieswithanimals.Inonestudy,conductedbySklarandAnisman,threegroupsofmicewereinjectedwiththesamenumberofcancercells.Onegroupwasexposedtoanelectricshockthattheycouldlearntoescapebyjumpingoverabarriertosafety.Asecondgroupwasexposedtothesamedurationofshock,buthadnomeansofactivelycopingwiththestress.Thethirdgroupwasnevershocked.Thecancergrewthefastestandledtotheearliestdeathintheanimalsthathadnomeansofcopingwiththeirstress.Incontrast,theanimalsthatgrowthfromthosethathadnotbeenshockedatall.壓力，無(wú)助，免疫功能和癌癥之間的這些聯(lián)系已經(jīng)在動(dòng)物研究中得到了實(shí)驗(yàn)證明。在一項(xiàng)由Sklar和Anisman進(jìn)行的研究中，三組小鼠注射了相同數(shù)量的癌細(xì)胞。一群人遭到電擊，他們可以通過(guò)跳過(guò)安全屏障學(xué)會(huì)逃離。第二組遭到相同的電擊，但沒(méi)有積極應(yīng)對(duì)壓力的手段。第三組從未電擊。無(wú)法應(yīng)對(duì)壓力的動(dòng)物癌癥增長(zhǎng)最快，導(dǎo)致最早的死亡。相比之下，那些從來(lái)沒(méi)有被電擊的動(dòng)物長(zhǎng)大了。HumanstudiesThelinkbetweenstress,helplessness,andcancerhasbeendemonstratedinhumansaswell.Inonedramaticstudyin1981,RichardShekelleandhisco-workersstudiedover2,000menwhohadtakenapsychologicaltestthatdiagnosesdepressionandotheremotionalstates.Seventeenyearslater,theresearcherfoundthatthosemenwhohadbeenhighlydepressedatthetimeofthetestinghadtwicethechanceofdyingofcancerasmenwhohadnotbeendepressedsincedepressedpeopletendtodrinkmorealcoholorsmokemorecigarettes,whichinturnincreasestheirriskofcancer,Shekelletookthisintoaccountwhenheanalyzedhisdata;theassociationbetweendepressionandcancerstillheld,regardlessofdrinkingorsmokingrates.inanotherstudy,widowedhusbandswerefoundtohaveadeclineinthefunctionoftheirwhitebloodcells-partoftheimmunesystem-withintwomonthsoftheirwivesdeaths.壓力，無(wú)助和癌癥之間的聯(lián)系也在人類中得到證明。理查德·謝克爾（RichardShekelle）和他的同事在1981年的一個(gè)戲劇性的研究中，研究了2000多名經(jīng)過(guò)心理測(cè)試診斷出抑郁癥和其他情緒狀態(tài)的男性。十七年后，研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)那些在測(cè)試時(shí)高度抑郁的男性患癌癥的機(jī)率是沒(méi)有抑郁的男性的兩倍，因?yàn)橐钟舭Y患者往往喝更多的酒或者吸更多的香煙，反過(guò)來(lái)又增加了患癌癥的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，Shekelle在分析他的數(shù)據(jù)時(shí)考慮到了這一點(diǎn);無(wú)論飲酒或吸煙率如何，抑郁癥和癌癥之間的關(guān)系仍然存在。在另一項(xiàng)研究中，喪偶的丈夫在其妻子死亡的兩個(gè)月內(nèi)被發(fā)現(xiàn)其白血細(xì)胞的功能下降-免疫系統(tǒng)的一部分。Thereisalsosomeevidencethatpeople’semotionsareinvolvedincanceronceithasbegun.inastudyofwomenwhounderwentmastectomyforearly-stagebreastcancer,Greerfoundthatwomenwhoreactedtotheirdiagnosiswitheitherafightingspiritorstrongdenialsweremorelikelytobefreeofdiseaseeightyearslaterthanwerewomenwhoreactedwithstoicacceptanceorwithfeelingsofhelplessness.還有一些證據(jù)表明，一旦癌癥開始，人們的情緒就會(huì)與癌癥有關(guān)。在對(duì)早期乳腺癌接受乳房切除術(shù)的婦女進(jìn)行的一項(xiàng)研究中，格里爾發(fā)現(xiàn)，那些女性對(duì)自己的診斷做出的反應(yīng)要么是戰(zhàn)斗精神，要么堅(jiān)決否認(rèn)的比那些堅(jiān)忍接受或感到無(wú)助的女性更可能沒(méi)有疾病。Recommendationsfortreatment治療建議Findingsonthelinksbetweenemotionalreactionstostressandtheprogressionofcancerhavegivenrisetosomerecommendationsforthetreatmentofcancerpatients.Inparticular,programsthatcanhelpgivecancerpatientsagreaterfeelingofcontrolovertheirdestiniesandthatcanhelpthemadopta“fightingspirit”mightjustincreasetheiroddsofsurvival.Althoughthereisnosolidevidenceasyetthatsuchprogramscaninfactextendpeople’slives,developingsuchprogramsremainsanexcitingfrontierinhealthpsychology.關(guān)于情緒對(duì)壓力的反應(yīng)與癌癥進(jìn)展之間的聯(lián)系的發(fā)現(xiàn)已經(jīng)引起對(duì)于癌癥患者治療的一些建議。特別是可以幫助癌癥患者控制自己的命運(yùn)，并可以幫助他們采取“戰(zhàn)斗精神”的計(jì)劃，可能會(huì)增加他們的生存幾率。雖然目前還沒(méi)有確鑿的證據(jù)表明這種方案實(shí)際上可以延伸人們的生活，但開發(fā)這樣的方案仍然是健康心理學(xué)領(lǐng)域的一個(gè)激動(dòng)人心的前沿。Reading1Heartdisease心臟病Heartdiseaseiswesternsociety’snumber-onekiller.itistheleadingcauseofdeathforbothmenandwomen,andaccountsformorethanoneinfourofalldeathsinAmerica.Heartdiseaseusedtobeconsideredamaledisease,andamongthemiddle-agedthisisstilltrue.However,since1984,morewomenthanmenactuallydiefromheartdiseaseintheUnitedStateseachyear.itisjustthattheonsetofheartdiseasestartslaterinwomenthaninmen.somegoodnews,thoughforbothgendersisthatdeathsfromheartdiseaseintheunitedstateshavebeenfallingsincethebeginningofthetwenty-fistcentury.Worldwide,however,thepictureisnotsogood.HeartdiseaseratesareclimbingrapidlyallaroundtheglobeasmoreandmoreculturesadoptaWesternLifestyle-smokingmore,exerciseless,andeatingadiethigherinfats.心臟病是西方社會(huì)的頭號(hào)殺手。它是男性和女性死亡的主要原因，占美國(guó)死亡人數(shù)的四分之一以上。心臟病以前被認(rèn)為是一種男性疾病，在中年人當(dāng)中，這仍然是事實(shí)。然而，自1984年以來(lái)，美國(guó)每年都有更多的女性死于心臟病。只是女性心臟病的發(fā)生晚于男性。有一個(gè)好消息，不過(guò)對(duì)于男性女性來(lái)說(shuō)，自二十一世紀(jì)初以來(lái)，美國(guó)心臟病的死亡人數(shù)一直在下降。但是在全球范圍內(nèi)，情況并不是那么好。隨著越來(lái)越多的文化采取西方生活方式，越來(lái)越多的人吸煙，減少鍛煉，并且在飲食中攝入更多的脂肪，心臟病發(fā)病率在全球迅速攀升。Heartdiseaseusuallyinvolvestheformationsofafattysubstancecalledplaqueinthewallsofthecoronaryarteries,whichsupplybloodtotheheart.Ifthearteriesbecomenarrowedenoughorblocked,thepersonmaysufferaheartattack(deathofaregionofheartmuscletissue).Amongthemanyfactorsthathavebeenfoundtoberelatedtotheriskofdevelopingheartdiseasearehighbloodpressure(orhypertension),ahistoryorheartdiseaseamongone’scloserelatives(indicatingapossiblegeneticpredispositiontothedisease),cigarettesmoking,beingrelativelyoverweigh,andahighlevelofafattysubstancecalledcholesterolintheblood.Inadditiontoallofthesewell-establishedriskfactors,itisnowclearthatstresscanhaveamajorimpactonthedevelopmentofheartdisease.Peoplewhocontinuallyundergoagreatdealofstress-andwholacktheabilitytocontrolit-areatsignificantlygreaterriskforheartdiseasethanpeoplewhoundergolessstressorwhocanmanagestresssuccessfully.Jobsthatimposehighpsychologicaldemandsbutthatprovidetheworkerwithlittlecontrol-suchasacook,awaiter,orahospitalorderly-seemtobreedheartdisease.心臟病通常是由為心臟供血的冠狀動(dòng)脈壁上形成稱為斑塊的脂肪物質(zhì)形成的。如果動(dòng)脈變窄或阻塞，則該人可能遭受心臟病發(fā)作（心臟肌肉組織區(qū)域的死亡）。在已經(jīng)被發(fā)現(xiàn)與開發(fā)心臟疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的諸多因素中，高血壓（或高血壓）、吸煙、血液中稱為膽固醇的高水平脂肪物質(zhì)相對(duì)容易發(fā)生，高血壓是一個(gè)歷史及疾病或心臟疾?。ū砻骺赡艿倪z傳傾向的疾病）。除了所有這些良好的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素外，現(xiàn)在很清楚，壓力可能會(huì)對(duì)心臟病的發(fā)展產(chǎn)生重大影響。那些持續(xù)承受巨大壓力的人，以及缺乏控制能力的人，心臟病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)明顯高于那些壓力較小或能夠成功應(yīng)對(duì)壓力的人。強(qiáng)加心理要求但給工人提供少量控制的工作-例如廚師，服務(wù)員或醫(yī)院有秩序的-似乎會(huì)滋生心臟病。Thetypeabehaviorpattern行為模式的類型Whereassomejobsmaymakeheavierpsychologicaldemandsthanothers,certainsortsofpeople,regardlessoftheiroccupation,seemtomakeheavypsychologicaldemandsonthemselves-and,asaresult,runagreaterriskofheartdisease.peoplewithaparticularpersonalitystyle,calledthecoronarypronebehaviorpatternandcommonlylabeledtypeA,havebeenfoundtobeespeciallysusceptibletoheartdisease.TypeApeoplearehard-driving,competitive,andaggressive.Theyexperiencegreattimeurgency,alwaystryingtodomoreandmoreinlessandlesstime.peoplewhohaveanoppositesortofpersonalityaretermedTypeB.othersarecategorizedsomewhereinbetween.雖然有些工作可能比別人有更重的心理需求，但某些人不論職業(yè)，似乎都對(duì)自己有沉重的心理要求，結(jié)果心臟病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)就更大了。具有特殊個(gè)性風(fēng)格的人們被稱為“冠狀動(dòng)脈易感行為模式”，通常被標(biāo)記為“A型”，已被發(fā)現(xiàn)特別容易患上心臟病。A型人開車難，好競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，好斗。他們經(jīng)歷著緊迫的時(shí)間，總是在越來(lái)越少的時(shí)間里越做越多。那些具有相反性格的人被稱為B型。其他人被歸類在兩者之間。ManystudieshaveconfirmedthatTypeApeoplearemoresusceptibletoheartdiseasethanTypeBPeople.OneprobablereasonisthatTypeApeopletendtomakegreaterdemandsonthemselvesandtoexposethemselvestomorestressfulsituationsthandoTypeBpeople.Onestudyofcollegefootballplayersfound,forexample,thatTypeAplayerswereratedbytheircoachesasplayingharderthanTypeBplayerswhentheywereinjured.TypeApeoplealsotendtohaveanunusuallyintensephysiologicalreactiontothestressthattheyencounter.Whentheyarefacedwithachallengingsituation,theytendtomanifesthigherbloodpressureandgreaterincreasesinheartrateandinthelevelofepinephrineintheirbloodthanTypeBpeople.Someresearchersbelievethatthisgreaterphysiologicalreactivityunderstress-sometimescalledhotreactivity-isthekeytothelinkbetweenthetypeapatternandheartdisease.許多研究證實(shí)A型人比B型人更容易患心臟病。一個(gè)可能的原因是A型人比B型人更傾向于對(duì)自己提出更高的要求，使自己面臨更多的壓力。例如，一項(xiàng)針對(duì)大學(xué)生足球運(yùn)動(dòng)員的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，A型運(yùn)動(dòng)員被教練評(píng)為比受傷的B型運(yùn)動(dòng)員更努力。A型人也往往對(duì)他們遇到的壓力有非常強(qiáng)烈的生理反應(yīng)。當(dāng)他們面對(duì)具有挑戰(zhàn)性的情況時(shí)，他們的血液中的血壓比B型人更高，心率和血液中的腎上腺素水平更高。一些研究人員認(rèn)為，壓力下的這種更大的生理反應(yīng)性-有時(shí)被稱為熱反應(yīng)性-是模式類型與心臟病之間關(guān)系的關(guān)鍵。Thebulkoftheresearchonpsychologicalfactorsinheartdiseasehasfocusedonmenratherthanwomen.evenamongwomenwhofacehighlystressfulsituations,whetheratworkorathome,theriskofheartdiseaseremainsconsiderablylowerthanformen.Manybiologicalandpsychologicalfactorsmaycontributetothisdifference.Amongthemistheconsistentfindingthatalthoughwomentendtoexpresstheiremotionsmoreopenlythanmendo,theirphysiologicalreactionstostresstendtobelessintense.intermsoftheriskofheartdisease,thenitmaybebettertoletonesemotionsshowoutwardlythantoburytheminside,wheretheymayeventuallycausedamagetoone'sbody.心臟病心理因素的研究大部分集中在男性而不是女性。即使是在工作和家庭中都面臨高度壓力的婦女中，心臟病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)仍遠(yuǎn)低于男性。許多生理和心理因素可能導(dǎo)致這種差異。其中有一致的發(fā)現(xiàn)，盡管女性比男性更容易表達(dá)自己的情緒，但對(duì)壓力的生理反應(yīng)往往不那么激烈。就心臟病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)而言，最好是讓情緒表現(xiàn)出來(lái)，而不是埋在心里，最終會(huì)對(duì)身體造成傷害。Becauseofthelinksbetweenthetypeabehaviorpatternandheartdisease,variousapproacheshavebeentakentochangingthispatternofbehavior.forexample,TypeApeoplehavebeentaughtrelaxationexercisesandothertechniquestomanagestress.Theyhavebeenencouragedtodevelopnonstressfulhobbiesandtheyhavebeengiventherapysessionstohelpchangetheirpressuredviewoftheworld.SomeprogramshavehadadegreeofsuccessinalteringthebehavioralandpsychologicalreactionofTypeAindividuals.Sofar,however,thesuccesshasbeenlimited.TheTypeApatternseemstobelearnedoverthecourseofmanyyears,anditissupportedbysuch,itisnotasimplemattertochangethispattern.indeed,asJoanBorysenkonotes,"oneofthemoststressfulthingsforaTypeAistobetoldtorelax.”由于行為模式與心臟病之間的聯(lián)系，已經(jīng)采取了各種方法來(lái)改變這種行為模式。例如，A型人已經(jīng)被教授放松練習(xí)和其他技術(shù)來(lái)管理壓力。他們被鼓勵(lì)發(fā)展非壓抑性的愛(ài)好，他們接受了治療課程來(lái)幫助改變他們對(duì)世界的壓力。一些項(xiàng)目在改變A型人的行為和心理反應(yīng)方面取得了一定程度的成功。但是到目前為止，成功是有限的。A型模式似乎是在多年的學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中得到這樣的支持，改變這種模式不是一件簡(jiǎn)單的事情。事實(shí)上，正如瓊·博里森科（JoanBorysenko）所指出的那樣，“對(duì)A型來(lái)說(shuō)，壓力最大的事情之一就是放松?！盧eading2SMOKINGTherisksofsmokingTherisksofsmokingarehardlyawell-guardedsecret.The"SmokingCanbeHarmfultoyourhealth”warningisoneverypackofcigarettessoldintheunitedstates,and97percentofadultsandteensagreethatsmokingisassociatedwithlungcancer.Nearlyasmanypeoplealsoacknowledgesmoking’slinkswithotherrespiratoryailmentsandheartdisease.Ateen-to-the-gravesmokerhasa50percentchanceofdyingfromthehabit.accordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),thedeathratefromsmokingwillsoongrowto10millionpeopleintheworldeveryyear,meaningthathalfabillionpeoplealivetodaywillbekilledbytobacco.Eliminatingsmokingwouldincreaselifeexpectancyworldwidemorethananyotherpreventivemeasure.Itisnowonderthenthat,becausesmokingisgenerallyviewedasthemostimportantbehavioralrisktohealth,ithasbecomeacentralconcernofhealthpsychologists.吸煙的危險(xiǎn)幾乎不是一個(gè)保守的秘密。在美國(guó)出售的每包香煙中，“吸煙對(duì)你的健康有害”是警告的，97％的成年人和青少年認(rèn)為吸煙與肺癌有關(guān)，幾乎同樣多的人也承認(rèn)吸煙與其他呼吸疾病和心臟病，青少年吸煙者有50％的機(jī)會(huì)死于這種習(xí)慣，根據(jù)世界衛(wèi)生組織（WorldHealthOrganization，WHO）的統(tǒng)計(jì)，吸煙的死亡率很快會(huì)增長(zhǎng)到全球1000萬(wàn)人這意味著今天活著的五億人將會(huì)被吸煙所殺，與其他任何預(yù)防措施相比，消除吸煙將會(huì)增加全世界的預(yù)期壽命，這也就不足為奇了，因?yàn)槲鼰熞话惚徽J(rèn)為是最重要的行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)健康，已經(jīng)成為健康心理學(xué)家關(guān)注的重點(diǎn)。Whydopeoplestartsmoking?Smokingisapediatricdisease.Itusuallybeginsduringearlyadolescence.Itisespeciallycommonamongthosewhogetlowgradesschoolwhodropoutofschool,whofeellessincontroloftheirfuture,andwhosefriends,parentsandsiblingssmoke.Welearnbehaviorsthroughthemodelsweimitateandthesocialrewardswereceive,adolescentsareself-consciousandoftenthinktheworldiswatchingtheireverymove.so,theymaybeginsmokingtoimitatecoolmodels,togetthesocialrewardsofbeingacceptedbyothersmokers,andtoprojectamatureimage.Typically,teenswhostartsmokinghavefriendsaswhosmokeandsuggestitspleasures,andwhoofferthemcigarettesamongteenswhoseparentsandbestfriendsarenonsmokers,therateisclosetozero.吸煙是一種兒科疾病。它通常在青春期初期開始。低年級(jí)學(xué)生輟學(xué)，對(duì)自己的未來(lái)掌控不足，朋友，父母和兄弟姐妹吸煙的情況尤其普遍。我們通過(guò)模仿的模式學(xué)習(xí)行為，獲得社會(huì)回報(bào)，青少年是自覺(jué)的，常常認(rèn)為世界正在觀察他們的一舉一動(dòng)。那么他們可能會(huì)開始吸煙，模仿酷酷的模特，獲得被其他吸煙者接受的社會(huì)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)，并且展示一個(gè)成熟的形象。通常情況下，開始吸煙的青少年有朋友抽煙，并建議他們吸煙的快樂(lè)并提供他們香煙。在父母和最好的朋友是非吸煙的青少年中，率接近于零Whydopeoplenotstopsmoking?Onceaddictedtonicotinewefinditverydifficulttostop.Tobaccoproductsareasaddictiveasheroinandcocaine.StudiesinBritainandtheUniteStatesshowthatatleastoneinthreeofthosewhotrycigarettesbecomeshooked.Thisaddictiontosmokingispartlyphysiological;smokersbecomesusedtotheeffectsofnicotineandexperiencepainfulwithdrawalwhentheygiveitup.Inaddition,peoplebecomephysiologicallydependentonsmokingasawayofreducinganxie