語言、文化與認同-

Language,

Culture

and

IdentiXU

HongchenEmail:

michaelhongchen@

October

9th,

2013The

lecture

will

coverLanguage

and

cultureLanguage

and

identityHot

topics

in

related

researchAcademic

resourcesFurther

reading

referencesLanguage

and

Culture

–Intercultural

CommunicatioI.

Introduction

to

ICC

ICC

is

the

term

first

used

by

Edward

T.

Hall

in1959

and

is

simply

defined

as

interpersonalcommunication

between

members

of

differentcultures.

It

can

include

international,

interethnic,

interrand

interregional

communication.Elements

of

ICC

study?

Condon

(1974):

Language

barriers,

different

values,cultural

patterns

of

behavior.?

Bell

(1992):

Physical,

cultural,

perceptual,

experienlinguistic,

nonverbal.Potential

problems

in

ICC

study:?

Stereotyping

(is

the

oversimplified

classification

oa

group

of

people

by

selecting

only

some

keyfeatures

of

them

in

ICC).?

Cultural

shock

(is

precipitated

by

the

anxiety

thatresults

from

losing

all

familiar

signs

and

symbolsof

social

interaction).

U-curve

of

cultural

shock:

Honeymoon

–

Rejection

–Regression

-

Recovery?

Ethnocentrism

(is

the

belief

that

your

own

culturalbackground

is

all

correct,

while

others

are

wrong.)?

Uncertainty

avoidance,

withdrawal,

prejudice,

etc.II.

Communication

TheoriesDefinitionSamovar

&

Porter

(1997):?

Communication

occurs

whenever

meaning

isattributed

to

behavior

or

the

residue

of

behavior.

“Attribution”

means

that

we

draw

upon

our

pastexperiences

and

give

meaning

to

the

behavior

that

weobserve.

“Residue”

refers

to

those

things

that

remain

as

arecord

of

our

actions.2.2

Components

of

CommunicationReceiver’s

Fieldof

ExperienceSender’s

Fieldof

ExperienceSenderEncodingMessageChannelDecodingReceiverNoiseedbackRespon2.3

Models

of

CommunicationLinear

Model?

Sender

–

message

–

channel

–

receiver

–

effectCircular

Model?

ENCODER

(decoder)

–

Message

–

DECODER(encoder)Contextual

Model?

Communication

within

PHYSICAL

–

SOCIAL

--CULTURAL2.4

Characteristics

of

CommunicatioCommunication

is:?

Dynamic?

Irreversible?

Symbolic?

Systemic?

Self-reflective?

Interactive?

Complex?

LearnedIII.

Culture

TheoriesDefinition

It

is

difficult

to

define

“culture”

because

ita

large

and

inclusive

concept.

But

the

only

requirement

for

being

cultured

isto

be

human.

Thus,

culture

is

first

of

all

human.

In

addition,

for

an

idea,

a

thing,

or

a

behaviorto

be

considered

cultural,

it

must

be

shared

bysome

type

of

social

group

or

society.3.2

Ingredients

of

CultureCulture

consists

of:?

Visible

aspects,

such

asMaterial/symbol

level

(most

superficial)Institutions/system

level?

Invisible

aspects,

such

asValues/belief

and

behavior

level3.3

Characteristics

of

CultureCulture

is:?

Learned?

Transmitted

from

generation

to

generation?

Selective?

Ethnocentric?

Interrelated

wholes?

Subject

to

change?

Like

an

iceberg

(visible

–

invisible)?

Like

an

onion

(values

–

rituals

–

heroes

–

symbols)?

Like

the

water

and

a

fish

swims

in?

Our

software?

The

grammar

of

our

behaviorIV.

Cultural

ValuesIntroduction

to

ValuesDefinition

of

values:?

“One’s

principles

or

standards,

one’sjudgment

of

what

is

valuable

or

important

in

life”(Concise

Oxford

Dictionary)Types

of

values:?

Universal

values?

Cultural-specific

values?

Individual-specific

values4.2

Properties

of

ValuesHow

to

obtain

values:?

From

families?

From

school

teachers?

From

peers?

From

society

at

large,

etc.How

to

find

out

values:?

From

people’s

behavior

pattern?

From

what

they

say

about

themselves?

From

myths,

tales,

proverbs,

saying,

or

rituals4.3

Study

of

valuesKluckholn

and

Strodtbeck’s

value

orientationsHofstede-Bond’s

value

dimensions

Hall’s

high-context

and

low-contextorientationThe

Kluckholns

and

Strodtbeck’s

ValueOrientationsHuman

nature?

Evil

but

perfectible;

mixture

of

good

and

evil;

good

butcorruptibleRelationship

to

nature?

Subjugation

to

nature;

harmony

with

nature;

mastery

overnatureSense

of

time?

Past,

present,

futureActivity?

Being-oriented,

doing-oriented,

being-and-becomingSocial

relationships?

Hierarchy,

group,

individualHofstede-Bond’s

value

dimensionsIndividualism

vs.

Collectivism?

The

first

relies

on

in-group

and

resists

out-groupPower

distance?

Some

people

can

accept

great

power

distance

while

otherscan’t.Uncertainty

avoidance?

Some

can

tolerate

uncertainty

while

others

can’tMasculinity

vs.

Femininity?

Some

emphasizes

aggressiveness

and

assertiveness

whileothers

caring

attention

to

people’s

feelings

and

needs.Long-term

vs.

Short-term?

Some

focuses

on

future

(thrifty)

while

others

focuses

onpresent

(extravagance)Hall’s

High-

&

Low-ContextsCultureHigh-context

culture:?

Most

of

the

information

is

in

the

physical

contextor

is

internalized

in

the

people

who

are

a

part

of

the

interaction.

Very

little

information

is

actuallycoded

in

the

verbal

message.Low-context

culture:?

Most

of

the

information

is

contained

in

the

verbalmessage,

and

very

little

is

embedded

in

thecontext

or

within

the

participants.V.

Verbal

CommunicationSapir-Whorf

HypothesisLanguage

is

a

reflection

of

the

environment.Language

is

a

reflection

of

values.Sapir-Whorf

Hypothesis:?

Language

determinism

(strong

version)Language

determines

the

way

people

perceive

the

world.?

Language

relativism

(weak

version)Language

influences

the

way

people

perceive

the

world.5.2

Cultural

Impact

on

LanguageLexical

level?龍vs.dragon?紅vs.red?壯如牛vs.as

strong

as

a

horse?蠢得象頭豬vs.as

stupid

as

a

goose?狼吞虎咽vs.make

a

lion’s

meal

ofDiscourse

LevelLinear

vs.

Non-linear

language?

English:

linear?

Semitic:

zigzag-parallel?

Oriental:

circular-spiral?

French:

digressive,

back-and-forth

zigzag?

Russian:

dotted

linesDeductive

vs.

Inductive

patterns?

Chinese

are

more

inductive?

Westerners

are

more

deductivePragmatic

LevelAddress

Greetings

and

leave-taking

(conversationaltaboos)Offer

and

thanksInvitation

and

responseApologies

and

responseCompliment

and

responseVI.

Non-verbal

CommunicationIntroduction

to

NVC

It

is

“meta-communication,

paralinguistics,second-order

messages,

the

silent

language,and

the

hidden

dimension

of

communication”(Hall,

1959).

It

is

important

in

replacing,modifying,complementing,

and

contradicting

verbalcommunication.

NVC

is

unstructured,

unconscious,

sometimesambiguous,

natural

&

uncontrollable,

moreemotional

and

universal.6.2

Contents

of

NVCBody

Movement

(Kinesics)?

Posture?

GestureThe

thumb-up

signThe

V

signThe

good

luck

sign?

Facial

expressionSmiling

and

laughingShowing

angerEye

Contact

(Oculesics)

In

North

America

and

Europe,

this

showsopenness,

trustworthiness,

and

integrity.

However,

black

children

are

taught

to

lookdown

at

the

ground

when

they

are

talking

toelders

or

when

elders

are

talking

to

them.This

is

to

show

respect.Body

Touch

(Haptics)Hand-shaking?

Americans

and

Germans

prefer

firm

one

plus

eyecontact

to

show

strength

and

trust

while

Frenchpeople

prefer

a

softer

one.

The

Japanese

shake

hands

by

stretching

their

arms

firmly

to

keep

agreater

distance.

In

Russia,

good

friends

start

withfirm

handshake

followed

by

a

bear

hug.Hugging

and

kissing?

For

old

friends

in

the

West

in

informal

situation.?

Chinese

almost

never

hug

or

kiss

in

either

situation.ParalanguageVocal

qualifiers?

Refers

to

tone,

volume,

pitch,

rhythm,

tempo,resonance,

etc.Vocalization?

Non-word

noises,

such

as

un-huh,

shh,

uh,

mmmh,humm,

sucking

in

one’s

breath,

clicking

one’stongue,

etc.Silence?

To

indicate

agreement

or

disagreement,

lack

ofinterest,

contempt,

etc.

Easterners

prefer

silence

icommunication.Spatial

Language

(Proxemics)Personal

space:?

Zero

to

18

inches

–

intimate

zoneOffice

space:?

4

to

12

feetPublic

space:?

12

to

25

feetTemporal

Language

(Chronemics)Monochronic

vs.

Polychronic?

A

Chinese

executive

can

be

polychronic

in

that

hemay

write

a

memo

to

a

colleague

when

answering

aphone

call.?

However,

an

American

one

is

usually

monochronic.Punctuality

vs.

Approximation?

Monochronic

culture

adhere

to

time

precisely?

Polychronic

people

do

not

adhere

to

it

quite

much.VII.

ICC

Competence

ImprovementDefinition

of

ICCC

It

is

considered

very

broadly

as

an

impressionthat

behavior

is

appropriate

and

effective

in

agiven

context.?

Appropriateness

means

that

the

valued

rules,norms,

and

expectances

of

the

relationship

are

notviolated

significantly.?

Effectiveness

is

the

accomplishment

of

valuedgoals

or

rewards

relative

to

costs

and

alternatives.7.2

Components

of

ICC

CompetenceCross-cultural

Attitude

Model?

Pays

more

attention

to

understandings,

attitudes

andknowledge

of

ICCBehavioral-skill

Model?

Believes

that

successful

ICC

communication

lies

insome

important

behavior

skills;

pays

more

attentionto

effectiveness

of

ICC

competence.Cognitive-Affective-Operational

Model?

Cognitive

–

understanding

the

meaning?

Affective

–

ICC

motivation

and

flexibility?

Operational

–

expressing

the

above

two

throughspecific

behaviors.7.3

Training

Steps

of

ICC

CompetenceRaise

awareness?

Self-awareness,

consciousness

of

possible

bias,tolerance

to

differences,

and

sensitivityObtain

knowledge?

ICC

knowledgeEnhance

motivation?

Possess

positive,

accurate

attitudes

to

ICCMaster

skills?

Language

skills

and

non-verbal

skillsVIII.

ICC

Study

Trend

More

empirical

studies

must

be

done

in

orderto

testify

the

already

existed

theories.

Different

research

contexts

should

beincluded

to

facilitate

comparison.More

research

needs

to

be

done

in

thecontext

of

globalization,

i.e.

there

are

moresimilarities

than

dissimilarities

amongcultures.

Besides

traditional

perspective

of

ICC

studies(i.e.

theoretical

or

comparative),

newperspectives

(such

as

identity

negotiation)should

be

included.Language

and

IdentityI.

Definition

of

Identity

Generally

speaking,

it

means

“who

I

am”or

“who

we

are”.It

can

be

objective

or

subjective.

It

shares

some

similarities

with

terms

like“self”,

“agency”,

and

“personality”.

The

issue

of

language

and

identity

has

longbeen

the

focus

of

sociolinguistics

and

SLA,and

some

Chinese

scholars

have

done

someresearch

on

it(e.g.王初明，高一虹，陳新仁).II.

Identity

Theories:

a

structuralist

per2.1

Some

classical

theories?

Labov’s

study

on

phonetic

features

and

socialstrata

in

the

1960s

tries

to

establish

a

one-to-onecorrespondence

between

social

identity

andlanguage

use.?

Bernstein’s

argues

in

the

1970s

that

socialclasses

(e.g.

middle

classes,

working

classes)determine

the

possibility

to

use

the

“complexcode”.?

Robin

Lakoff’s

study

on

the

differences

betweenmale

and

female

use

of

language

tries

to

reveal

thesocial

status

of

gender

determined

the

languagechoice.?

Brown

&

Levinson’s

“face

theory”

also

revealsthat

“face”

(i.e.

self-identity)

is

determined

bysocial

distance,

power

distance

and

culturalpresupposition.?

Halliday’s

“social

semiotics”

also

stresses

thatsocial

ideology

influences

language

use,

thus,language

choice

(i.e.

self-identity)

reflects

theirideology.?

Lambert’s

“matched

guise”

method

elicits

thesubjects’

attitudes

towards

the

“guised

speaker

’s”

community

(i.e.

group-identity).2.2

Tajfel’s

Social

Identity

Theor

The

main

idea

is

that

every

individual

belongs

toa

social

category

(i.e.

social

identity);

togethwith

his

or

her

“self-identity”,

there

forms

th“self-concept”.

This

theory

is

based

on

the

opposition

inner

andouter

groups,

and

is

to

some

extent

simplifiedas

for

the

complexity

of

identity.

So

there

follows

some

revised

models,

such

asTurner’s

Self-categorization

Theory,Brewer’s

Optimal

Distinctive

Theory,Worchel’s

Multidimensional

Model,

andGaertner’s

Ingroup

Identity

Model,

etc.2.3

Giles’s

Language

&

Identity

TheoCommunication

Accommodation

Theory?

Human

beings

adjust

their

language

styles,

such

aspronunciation,

speed,

and

information

content

toconvey

their

values,

attitudes,

and

orientations.Drawing

close

to

the

listener’s

style

signifies

sociidentity

while

deviating

from

the

style

amplifies

thespeaker’s

in-group

identity.?

The

theory

is

widely

applied

in

media,

courts,

ICCstudies,

etc.Ethnolinguistic

Identity

Theory?

The

theory

is

based

on

the

linguistic

vitality

ofethnic

languages

and

the

importance

of

multi-socialidentities.?

Giles

&

Johnson

(1981)

lists

five

standards

oflinguistic

vitality

of

ethnic

languages,

and

when

theare

all

working,

SL

learning

motivation

will

behindered,

otherwise

it

would

be

enhanced:

Strong

ethnic

identity;

knowledge

of

other

social

groupsoutside;

strong

belief

in

their

own

linguistic

vitality;

stronbelief

in

their

community

cohesion;

week

identification

toother

social

groups.?

Lanca’s

(1994)

empirical

studies

supports

theabove

hypothesis.2.4

Summary

Structuralist

language

and

identity

theorieshighlights

the

social

conditions

and

restrictions

thatinfluences

the

formation

of

identity.

Identity

is

a

“de-individualizing”

process

with

theinfluence

of

social

structure,

and

an

“in-group”identification

process.

The

power

relationship

between

L1

and

L2influences

the

social

identity

choice

of

languageusers.

However,

this

perspective

ignores

the

agency

ofindividuals,

the

multiplicity

and

complexity

oflanguage

and

identity

relationship,

as

well

as

theinfluence

of

language

activities

on

identity.III.

Identity

Theories:

a

constructivist

pers3.1

Gumperz’

Interactional

Sociolinguistics?

He

proposed

the

theory

in

1982.?

The

basic

idea

is

that

ethnic

and

social

identities

tlarge

extent

are

established

and

maintained

throughlanguage.

Social

categories,

such

as

gender,

ethnicand

stratum

are

not

unchangeable,

but

negotiable.?

This

theory

is

mainly

applied

in

interculturalcommunication

studies.?

However,

it

carries

some

features

of

structuralistpoint

view,

such

as

regarding

static

social

structureand

resources

greatly

influences

language

use

andidentity.

But

the

orientation

is

constructivist.3.2

Le

Page

&

Tabouret-Keller’s

Theory

Their

main

point

is

that

linguistic

behavior

isidentity

behavior,

individuals

can

establish

theown

linguistic

behavior

pattern

to

draw

closerto

or

deviate

from

certain

groups.

At

the

same

time,

the

existed

identity

might

beinfluenced

by

others’

feedback

and

thus

bestrengthened

or

weakened.

Linguistic

and

identity

behavior

is

complex,

nota

one-or-the-other

choice,

but

interactive

andcontextualized.3.3

Vygotsky’s

Mediation

Theory

Vygotsky

claims

human

cognitive

capacity

is

notinnate,

but

socially

constructed;

language

is

notarbitrary

but

the

product

of

historical

and

culturaldevelopment,

and

the

most

important

instrument

ofhuman

cognition

and

social

relationship.

Using

language

as

a

mediation

with

grown-ups,children

internalize

cultural

regulations

related

tocertain

behaviors,

and

meanwhile

reconstruct

theirpsychological

structure.

In

the

past

ten

years,

Lantolf

(2000)

and

others

havedeveloped

Vygotsky’s

theory,

and

applied

it

in

L2study

and

“self-construction”.3.4

Bourdieu’s

Identity

Theory

He

emphasizes

the

important

role

of

languagein

the

construction

of

identity.

He

uses

the

following

terms

to

illustrate

theprocess:?Habitus(慣習)–one’s

disposition

and

cognitionpatterns

that

are

acquired

from

the

strata

into

whichone

was

born.?

Capital

–

the

resources

one

possesses

in

the

social

structure,

which

influence

the

individual’s

social

practice

and

identity.?

Investment

–

one’s

linguistic

activity

to

obtain

m“capital”

in

order

to

change

one’s

social

statusand

to

negotiate

new

identities.3.5

Giddens’

Reflective

Self-IdentityTheory

Self-identity

is

reflectively

organized,

cohesiand

revisable,

and

experience-specific.

Individuals

can

monitor

their

activities

in

areflective

way

to

keep

the

activities

and

theirconditions

stable

and

coherent.

And

there

willemerge

unexpected

consequences

that

can

inturn

influence

the

individuals

activities.

Since

modern

society

is

“open”

in

nature,contexts

and

“authorities”

are

multiple,

self-identity

in

modernity

is

always

multiple.3.6

Lave

&

Wenger’s

Identity■ThTeheoirrytheory

of

“situated

learning”

perceiveslearning

as

the

process

of

identity

constructionin

the

“community

of

practice”.

Learners

transform

from

“l(fā)egitimate

peripheralparticipation”

to

“adequate

participation”and

develop

multiple

and

various

identities

inthe

process

because

there

is

no

clearboundary

nor

a

single

nucleus.

The

theory

also

emphasize

the

development

oflearners

as

a

“whole

person”.

This

issignificant

in

the

study

of

language

learneridentity.3.7

Summary

From

a

constructivist

perspective,

languageis

regarded

as

the

product

of

the

competitionamong

various

social

forces,

regulations,

andresources.

Identity

is

not

the

by-product

ofsocial

structure,

nor

the

product

ofindividual’s

intention,

but

is

interacted

withlanguage

and

context

in

certain

socialhistorical

and

cultural

conditions.

It

is

multipand

fluid.Empirical

studies

from

this

perspective

cover:?

L2

learning/acquisition

and

identity:

e.g.

Norton

(1993,1995,

1997,

2000,

2006);?

Literacy

and

identity:

e.g.

Ivanic

(1998)?

Multi-linguistic

society

and

identity:

e.g.

Le

Page

et

al.(1985)?

Discourse

multiplicity

and

identity:

e.g.

Robinson

&

Giles(2001)?

International

academic

journals

special

issues:Linguistics

and

Education

(1996,

Vol.8;

2000,

Vol.11)Language

and

Education

(1996,

Vol.10)TESOL

Quarterly

(1997,

Vol.35)

The

research

methodology

in

the

above

studies

arequalitative

and

longitudinal.

Discourse

analysis

isapplied

as

the

main

strategy

to

deal

with

the

data.IV.

Some

issues

of

language

and

identityfuture

research

The

researcher

needs

to

clarify

the

perspectiveof

his

or

her

research

as

well

as

the

definition

o“identity”.

There

needs

more

“l(fā)ocalized”

and

“inner”voice

from

the

research,

especially

from

thecontext

of

the

research.

More

research

related

with

FLL

and

identity

isneeded

co