石油工程教學課件電子教案全套課件

石油工程(Petroleum

Engineering)1林再興(研究室4328B)2006年9月~

2007年1月Text

Books2Textbook

1Fundamentals

of

Petroleum,

Petroleum

Extension

Service,

TheUniversity

of

Texas

at

Austin,

Austin,

Texas,1979.Textbook

2Archer,

J.

S.,

and

Wall,

C.G.,

Petroleum

Engineering—principles

andpractice,

Graham

&

Trotman,

MD,

1986.TextBook

3Donohue,

D.A.T.,

and

Lang

K.R.,

A

First

Course

in

PetroleumTechnology,

International

Human

resources

Development

Corporation,Houston,1986.Textbook

4Hyne,N.J.,

Nontechnical

Guide

to

Petroleum

Geology,

Exploration,Drilling

and

Production,

Penn

Well

Co.,

Tulsa,

Oklahoma,

2001.References3l.htm)Web

sites石油教室

Classroom(cpc.tw/big5/content/index.asp?pno=108)SPE

Energy

Education

(Introduction

to

Oil

and

Natural

Gas)(/spe/jsp/basic/0,,1104_1008218,00.html)石油工程實驗室(ncku.tw/~source/home/teacher_lin_persona4567石油工程講授大綱8石油教室Classroom1.前言(Introduction)Textbook

2–

chapter

1SPE

Energy

Education2.石油地質及儲油層(Petroleum

Geology

and

Reservoir)Textbook

1–

chapter

1Textbook

2–

chapter

2石油教室ClassroomSPE

Energy

EducationTextbook

3–

chapter

4.1;

4.2石油探勘(Petroleum

Prospecting)Textbook

1–chapter

2

石油教室ClassroomSPE

Energy

Education鑽井工程(Drilling

Engineering)石油教室ClassroomSPE

Energy

EducationTextbook

1–

chapter

4Textbook

2–

chapter

3Textbook

3–

chapter

1石油工程講授大綱地層評估(Formation Evaluation)Textbook

4– chapter

19油層工程(Reservoir Engineering)Textbook

2– chapter

4;5;8;127.生產(chǎn)工程(Production

Engineering)Textbook

1–chapter

5Textbook

3–chapter

3石油教室ClassroomSPE

Energy

Education9Chapter

1

Introduction(前言)10What

is

pe·tro·le·um

(p

-trō"lē-

m)?Oil

from

rockA

thick,

flammable,

yellow-to-black

mixture.

Being

gaseous,

liquid,

and

solid

hydrocarbons

that

occursnaturally

beneath

the

earth"s

surface.

Could

be

separated

into

fractions

including

natural

gas,gasoline,

naphtha,

kerosene,

fuel

and

lubricating

oils,paraffin

wax,

and

asphalt

and

is

used

as

raw

material

for

awide

variety

of

derivative

products.石油的分子結構11石油是碳氫化合物。我們通常以C代表碳，以H代表氫，則烷烴(石蠟烴)、烯烴、環(huán)烷烴及芳香烴其分子結構均不相同。如烯烴類有一組雙鍵結構(請比較異丁烷與異丁烯)，芳香烴為六隅體結構等。而甲烷即是含有一個碳原子，乙烷含兩個碳原子，丙烷含三個碳原子，依此類推。12Petroleum(石油)and

Energy(能源)能源(Energy

Sources)是什麼?具有可以使用之熱能(heat)或功率

(power)的物質或資源。例如，石油、煤，及太陽能等。13能源的分類14傳統(tǒng)能源或非再生能源(Non-renewable

Energy)這類資源的循環(huán)時間極長–用完之後，難以在短期內補充，會”耗盡”。包括：石油、天然氣、煤及核能。再生能源(Renewable

Energy)資源可以快速循環(huán)或補充–“不會用完”，”不會枯竭耗盡包括：太陽能、風力能、潮汐能、水力能、波浪能、地熱能及生質能等。傳統(tǒng)能源(或非再生能源)化石燃料能(Fossil

Fuel

Energy)－石油、天然氣、煤炭核能(Nuclear

Energy)－鈾(Uranium)15再生能源(Renewable

Energy)種類太陽能(Solar

Power)風力能(Wind

Power)潮汐能(Tidal

Power)水力能(Hydro-electric

Power)波浪能(Wave

Power)地熱能(Geothermal

Energy)生質能(Biomass

Energy)16世界消費能源總量之中各類能源所佔比例Source:

EIA,

Annual

Energy

Review,

200217石油分類18物理性質--

relative

weight

(API

gravity)

or--

viscosity

("light",

"intermediate"

or

"heavy");--

impurity--"sweet,"

which

means

it

contains

relatively

little

sulfur,

or--

"sour,"

which

means

it

contains

substantial

amounts

of

sulfur

and

requires

more

refining

in

order

to

meet

current

product

specifications化學性質石油的分子結構產(chǎn)地by

the

location

of

its

origin(e.g.,

"West

Texas

Intermediate,

WTI"or

"Brent")市場商品產(chǎn)地(&物理性質)The

world

reference

Crude

(oil)

Brent

Crude,

comprising

15

oils

from

fields

in

the

Brent

and

Ninian

systems

in

the

East

Shetland

Basin

of

the

North

Sea.

The

oil

is

landed

at

Sullom

Voe

terminal

in

the

Shetlands.

Oil

production

from

Europe,

Africa

and

Middle

Eastern

oil

flowing

West

tends

to

be

priced

off

the

price

of

this

oil,

whichforms

a

benchmark.?West

Texas

Intermediate

(WTI)

for

North

American

oil.Dubai,

used

as

benchmark

for

Middle

East

oil

flowing

to

the

Asia-Pacific

region.?Tapis

(from

Malaysia,

used

as

a

reference

for

light

Far

East

oil)Minas

(from

Indonesia,

used

as

a

reference

for

heavy

Far

East

oil)The

OPEC

basket

used

to

be

the

average

price

of

the

following

blends:Arab

Light

Saudi

ArabiaBonny

Light

NigeriaFateh

DubaiIsthmus

Mexico

(non-OPEC)Minas

IndonesiaSaharan

Blend

AlgeriaTia

Juana

Light

VenezuelaOPEC

attempts

to

keep

the

price

of

the

Opec

Basket

between

upper

and

lower

limits,

by

increasingand

decreasing

production.

This

makes

the

measure

important

for

market

analysts.

The

OPECBasket,

including

a

mix

of

light

and

heavy

crudes,

is

heavier

th19API

GravityAPI

<=>

American

Petroleum

InstituteFor

API

=

10oAPI

<

20o2030o

<

API

<

40o40o

<

APIAPI

>

45o=>

water=>

heavy

oil=>

intermediate

oil

(light

to

medium)=>

light

oil=>

volatile

oilAPI

~

60o

~

70o

=>

condensate

liquidWhat

is

a

"barrel"

of

oil?211

barrel

=

0.158987

cubic

meters1

barrel

=

34.99089

Imperial

gallons1

barrel

=

42

U.S.

gallons1

barrel

=

158.987146

liters

Now-a-days,

oil

volumes

are

measured

in

cubic

meters

or

"cubes"

asthey

are

referred

to

in

the

"oil

patch"

1

cubic

meter

=

6.28994

barrels1

cubic

meter

=

1,000

liters1

barrel

=

158.987146

liters

Brent

Crude

Brent

Crude

is

one

of

the

major

classifications

of

oilconsisting

of

Brent

Crude,

Brent

Sweet

Light

Crude

...

per

barrel

isabout

$1

less

than

WTI,

and

$1

more

than

OPEC

Basket.

Brent

Crudehas

an

API

gravity

of

around

38.6.

...Bibliographic

EntryResult(w/surrounding

text)StandardizedResult"Energy."

Science&Technology.

GaleResearch

Inc.,

1993.37

MJ"Heat

of

Combustion."Handbookof

Chemistry&

Physics.

ChemicalRubber

Co.

Press

LLC,2001.40

MJNatural

Gas

Facts.."A

cubic

foot

of

naturalgas

gives

off

1000

Btu,but

the

range

of

values

is500

to

1500

Btu."37

MJ(average)19

-

56

MJ(range)"Fuel

Gas."

McGrawHill

EncyclopediaofScience&

Technology.McGraw

Hill,

Inc.,

1982."The

net

heating

valueof

natural

gas

served

bya

utility

company

isoften

1000

to

1100Btu/ft3."37

-

41

MJApproximate

HeatContent

of

Natural

Gas.Energy

InformationAdministration.39

MJ(1949)38

MJ(2000)FuelBTUUnit

of

MeasureNatural

Gas1000cubic

feetMolecular

FormulaHydrocarbonskJ/molCH4methane

(g)890.8YearTotal

Consumption19491035

Btu/ft320001027

Btu/ft322Crude

Oil,

Gasolineand

Natural

Gas

FuturesNYMEX

Prices

for

September

13,

2006NYMEX

Light

Sweet

Crude+0.21$63.97IPE

Brent0.00$62.99Gasoline

NY

Harbor+0.0010$1.5531Heating

Oil

NY

Harbor-0.0169$1.7428NYMEX

Natural

Gas-0.125$5.44923Graphs:

Oil

&

Gas

Spot

andFutures

pricesNews

&

Issues:2425262728IPE

BRENT

CRUDE

OIL

PRICEInternational

political

economy

(IPE)293031323334353637What

is

Petroleum

Engineering38Petroleum

Engineering

is

a

creative

technologyThe

function

of

petroleum

engineeringto

provide

a

basis

for

the

design

and

implementationof

techniques

to

recover

commercial

quantities

ofnatural

petroleum.

Broadly

based

technology

of

petroleumengineeringEngineering;

geology;

mathematics;

physics;chemistry;

economics;

geostatics.Major

fields

in

Petroleum39Drilling

EngineeringProduction

EngineeringReservoir

EngineeringThe

design

of

petroleum

techniques

is

based

onobservation

of

production

performance,a

representation

of

reservoir

inferred

from

very

limited

sampling.

Reservoirs

cannot

be

designed

to

fulfill

a

particular

taskbut

rather

an

ill-defined

naturally

occurring

reservoir

isinduced

to

produce

some

fraction

of

its

contents

for

aslong

as

is

considered

commercially

attractive.

With

the

passage

of

time

and

cumulative

production,more

information

on

the

nature

of

the

reservoir

can

beaccumulated

and

the

production

methods

can

modified.40The

design

of

petroleum

techniques

Thus

petroleum

engineering

can

represent

anexercise

in

the

application

of

uncertainty

todesign.

The

terminology

of

the

subject

contains

varyingdegrees

of

confidence

in

representation

of

thein-place

and

recoverable

resource

base.

We

will

discuss

the

representation

of

“proven”quantities

of

hydrocarbon

in

terms

of

availabilityof

information

and

the

existence

of

technology

toexploit

recovery

on

commercially

attractive

terms.41Uncertainty

of

Design

In

the

current

climate

of

deeper

reservoir

exploration

andincreased

exploitation

of

offshore

reservoirs

in

theworld’s

sedimentary

basins

(Fig.

1.1),

costs

of

productioare

significant.For

example,

in

terms

of

pre-tax

cost

of

oil

productionfrom

a

2000

m

ss

onshore

well

compared

with

a

3000

mss

offshore

well,

a

ratio

of

1:10

might

be

expected.

Current

exploration

in

maturing

hydrocarbon

provinces

iscentered

on

more

subtle

trapping

mechanisms

thanstructural

highs

and

on

smaller

accumulations.42Costs

of

production

The

further

recovery

of

hydrocarbons

from

reservoirsapproaching

the

end

of

conventional

developmentprocess

requires

the

cost-effective

application

ofenhanced

(EOR)

or

improved(IHR)

hydrocarbonrecovery

process.

The

exploitation

of

heavy

oil

(API

gravity

less

than

20oAPI)

and

of

gas

condensate

and

volatile

oil

reservoirs(API

gravity

greater

than

45o

API)

requires

specialpetroleum

engineering

effort,

particularly

in

high-pressure

or

offshore

reservoirs.43Enhanced

Oil

Recovery

(EOR)

andImproved

Hydrocarbon

Recovery

(IHR)

Developments

in

the

recovery

of

hydrocarbon

from

oilsands

and

oil

shales

require

that

petroleum

engineeringmethods

are

combined

with

the

technologies

of

miningengineers

and

chemical

engineers.

The

prices

of

oil

in

world

markets

are

partly

controlled

byagreement

amongst

producing

nations.Fig.

1.2

shows

the

fluctuation

in

the

average

officialMiddle

East

Crude

oil

price.The

effect

of

the

exchange

rate

fluctuation

between

thepound

sterling

and

the

US

dollar

is

also

clearly

seen.44Chapter

2Petroleum

Geology

and

ReservoirsReservoir(儲油層)

We

may

define

a

reservoir

as

an

accumulation

ofhydrocarbon

in

porous

permeable

sedimentary

rock.

The

accumulation,

which

will

have

reached

a

fluidpressure

equilibrium

throughout

its

pore

volume

at

thetime

of

discovery,

is

also

sometimes

known

as

a

pool.

A

hydrocarbon

field

may

comprise

several

reservoirs

atdifferent

stratigraphic

horizons

or

in

different

pressureregimes.45Field47Lease48Reservoir(儲油層)

具有商業(yè)價值的石油(及天然氣)地層--reservoir，所需具備之條件(1)合適之地層形貌(Shape/Configuration-traps)(2)頂蓋層(cap

rock,rock

seal)(3)儲油層之面積(area)大(4)儲油層之厚度(thickness)大(5)儲油層之孔隙率(porosity)大(6)儲油層之含水飽和度(water

saturation)小(7)儲油層之滲透率(permeability)大49原油現(xiàn)地藏量

Original

oil

in

place

(OOIP)OOIP

=

A

*

h

* *

(1-Sw)*

1/BowhereA=儲油層之面積(area)h=儲油層之厚度(thickness)=儲油層之孔隙率(porosity)Sw

=儲油層之含水飽和度(water

saturation)Bo=石油地層體積因子(oil

formationvolume

factor)50原油現(xiàn)地藏量

Original

oil

in

place

(OOIP)*

(1-Sw)*

1/BoOOIP

=

7758*

A

*

h

*whereOOIP=原油現(xiàn)地藏量,STBA=儲油層之面積(area),acresh=儲油層之厚度(thickness),ft=儲油層之孔隙率(porosity),fractionSw

=儲油層之含水飽和度(water

saturation),fractionBo=石油地層體積因子(oil

formation

volume

factor),

bbl/STB1

acres

=

43560

ft21

bbl

=

5.61458

ft351資源量及蘊藏量定義資源量(Petroleum

Resources，或Resources，或Total

Petroleumin

place，或Original

oil

in

place

)在一區(qū)域或礦區(qū)所存在的石油（含天然氣）之總量，稱為資源量。蘊藏量(Petroleum

Reserves，或Reserves)在一已知區(qū)域或礦區(qū)中，自某一時間點開始，依據(jù)當時的經(jīng)濟條件(E)、工程技術(F)、及地質條件(G)下，在可預見的未來所能採收的石油（含天然氣）之量稱為蘊藏量，或最終採收量。52Reserves(蘊藏量)Reserves

=

OOIP

*

recovery

factorwhere

OOIP=A

*

h

* *

(1-Sw)*

1/Borecovery

factor(採收因子)=

f(

k,

E,

P,

T

…)k=permeability(滲透率)53

The

setting

for

hydrocarbon

accumulation

is

asedimentary

basin

that

has

provided

theessential

components

for

petroleum

reservoiroccurrence,

namely(a)

a

source

for

hydrocarbons,(b)

the

formation

and

migration

of

petroleum,

(c)

a

trapping

mechanism,

i.e.,

the

existence

of

trapsin

porous

sedimentary

rock

at

the

time

of

migrationand

in

the

migration

path.

The

discovery

of

oil

by

exploration

well

drilling

isome

of

the

world’s

sedimentary

basin

is

shownin

Figs.

2.1

and

2.25455Lower

right

line

(0.1

103

m3

oil

/

km2

)

/

(100

willcat

wells/104

km2

)=

104

m3

oil

/

willcat

well

=

6.289*104

bbl3

oil

/

willcat

wellUpper

left

line

(10

103

m3

oil

/

km2

)

/

(1

willcat

well/104

km2

)=

108

m3

oil

/

willcat

well

=

6.289*108

bbl

oil

/

willcat

wellLower

right

line

(0.01

106

m3

oil

discovered

/

willcat

)

/(1

106

m3

oil

discovered/

successful

wildcat

)=

1%

successful

wildcat

/

willcatUpper

left

line

(0.1

106

m3

oil

discovered

/

willcat

)

/(0.1

106

m3

oil

discovered/

successful

wildcat

)=

100%

successful

wildcat

/

willcat現(xiàn)今的石油鑽井很安全；很多國家都有制定法令以保護地表及地下之自然環(huán)境。在七個探勘井中會有一口具有生產(chǎn)利潤的生產(chǎn)井對於不具生產(chǎn)價值的井，必須用水泥及泥土將井口封閉起來59Petroleum

GeologyGeology(地質)---研究(1)地球的歷史及構造(2)記錄在巖石的生物(命)形式Petroleum

Geology(石油地質)---研究地質以預測石油累積之處所60地球的歷史及構造

地球的形成—40～50億年前由宇宙塵

(Cosmic

dust)的凝結而成地球內部大構造—■■Core---

heavy

(4,400

miles)Mantle---

Lighter

(1,800

miles)Crust---

10~30

miles61地球內部大構造62在地球上，不管您走到哪裡，你都是在巖石（Rock）的上面。在某些地方，你是站有巖石的上面20哩處20哩是多少?6MILES

=

9.6

KILOMETERS20MILES

=

32

KILOMETERS喜馬拉雅山大約有6哩高所以20哩是喜馬拉雅山的3倍高，其間有很多的巖石。63地球表面的變化--Rock

cycleMagma(巖漿)Igneous

rocks(火成巖)Sediments(沉積物)SedimentaryrocksMetamorphicrocks地球內部Water

vapor

andgasesPrimeval(初期的)

Atmosphere(大氣)地殼冷卻地殼收縮變形而皺摺噴出形成heatheatpressureerosionerosionpressurecementationerosion下雨64Reservoir

RockProrsityReservoir

RockPermeabilitySandstones

(SiO2)CarbonatesLimestones

(CaCO3)Dolomites

(CaCO3,

MgCO3)ClasticChemicalOrganicOtherConglomerCarbonateEvaporitePeatChertateCoalSandsonteDiatomiteSiltstoneLimestoneGypsumLimestoneShaleDolomiteAnhydriteSaltPotash65沉積巖的分類66ClasticChemicalOrganicOtherConglomerCarbonateEvaporitePeatChertateCoalSandsonteSiltstoneShaleDiatomiteLimestoneLimestoneDolomiteGypsumAnhydriteSaltPotash碎屑巖化學巖有機巖其他礫巖

砂巖

粉砂巖頁巖碳酸鹽蒸發(fā)巖泥炭煤矽藻土石灰?guī)r角巖石灰?guī)r白雲(yún)石石膏

硬石膏鹽巖碳酸鉀(鉀化合物)地球的歷史

寒武紀(Cambrian)【約5.5億年前】開始在海洋裡有大量的生物(生命)在寒武紀之前為前寒武紀(Precambrian)地質年代自寒武紀開始>地質代年表(Geologic

Time

Scale)

泥盆紀(Devonian)時期【約3.3億年前】陸上有大量植物及動物67Geological

Time

Scale68Petroleum

accumulation(石油累積)Petroleum

accumulation(石油累積)必須具備Oil＆gas之來源具有孔隙(porosity)及滲透率(permeability)之Reservoir

Rock要有trap(封閉)以阻擋流體的流動69石油的來源－石油來自沈積巖的有機物質－海洋裡大量的生物不停的，緩慢的掉落到海底。 雖然在掉落的過程中，有部分被吃掉或被氧化掉，但另部份(動物或植物)掉落海底而埋在沼澤或泥濘之海底－海底繼續(xù)被Sand(砂)，Clay(土)及debris等沈積物埋沒 一直到幾千英呎－沈積物的壓力開始作用。細菌由殘餘的有機物質中，用掉氧而分解物質， 使其僅存碳及氫－在高度的壓力及重量的地層影響之下，

Clays變成Shales→石油產(chǎn)生70

Petroleum

formation

requires

thatorganic

source

clays

become

matureby

subjection

to

pressure

andtemperature.71石油形成的重要條件225℉<temperature<350℉有利條件■temperature<150℉不可能形成石油■temperature>500℉有機物質碳化，不能形成石油7273

Prolonged

exposure

to

high

temperatures,

or

shorterexposure

to

very

high

temperatures,

may

leadprogressively

to

the

generation

of

hydrocarbon

mixturescharacterized

as

condensates,

wet

gases

and

gas.

The

average

organic

content

of

potential

source

rocks

isabout

1%

by

weight.The

Kimmeridge

clay,

the

principal

source

rock

for

NorthSea

oil

average

about

5%

carbon

(~7%

organic

mater)with

local

rich

streaks

greater

than

40%.The

hydrogen

content

of

the

organic

matter

should

begreater

than

7%

by

weight

for

potential

as

an

oil

source.74

It

is

a

rule

of

thumb

that

for

eachpercentage

point

of

organic

carbon

inmature

source

rocks,

some

1300~1500cubic

meters

of

oil

per

km2-m

(or

10~40barrels

of

oil

per

acre-ft)

of

sediment

coulbe

generated.It

is

not,

however,

necessarily

true

that

althe

oil

generated

will

be

expelled

ortrapped

in

porous

rock.75石油移棲石油形成後Traps＆Reservoir

RocksMigration經(jīng)過porous

bed有permeability由於Compaction

of

Source

bedThe

migration

process

involves

two

main

stages,

namelythrough

the

source

rock

and

then

through

a

permeable

system.76Migration

of

petroleum--

through

the

source

rock**

Capillary

effect**

MicrofracturesSince

the

generation

of

petroleum

is

accompanied

byvolume

changes

which

can

lead

to

high

local

pressures,there

may

well

be

an

initiation

of

microfractures

whichprovide

an

escape

route

into

permeable

systems

such

assedimentary

rocks

or

fault

planes.The

source

rock

microfractures

are

believed

to

heal

aspressures

are

dissipated.77石油移棲石油形成後Traps＆Reservoir

RocksMigration經(jīng)過porous

bed有permeability由於Compaction

of

Source

bed78Migration

of

petroleum--through

a

permeable

system**

Fluid

potential

gradient

or

gravity

effectIn

the

permeable

system

the

transport

occursunder

conditions

of

a

fluid

potential

gradientwhich

may

take

the

hydrocarbon

to

surface

or

tosome

place

where

it

becomes

trapped.It

might

be

assumed

that

less

than

10%

ofpetroleum

generated

in

source

rocks

is

bothexpelled

and

trapped,

as

shown

in

the

exampleof

Fig.

2.5.7980Petroleum

traps

The

characteristic

forms

of

petroleum

trapare

known

asstructural

traps(構造封閉)andstratigraphic

traps(地層封閉),with

the

great

majority

of

knownaccumulation

being

in

the

former

style.81地質構造（Geological

Structures）Erosion

－

SedimentationUplift

－

wearing

downUpper

crustmoveUpwarddownwardFaultNormalReverseThrustLateralStrata

or

bedUnconformity－disconformity－Angular

unconformityFoldsArches

(or

upfold) →

anticlinesTraughs

(or

downfold)

→

synclinesImportant

to

petroleum

accumulation82Figure

1.12.

Twogeneral

kinds

ofunconformities

aredisconformity

(A)and

angularunconformities

(B)and

(C).造山運動之應力所造成83沉積過程所造成Figure

1.13.

Basichydrocarbon

reservoirs

arestructural

and

/

orstratigraphic

traps.封閉(traps)封閉(traps)Structural

traps－an

arched

upper

surfaceStratigraphic

traps---up-dip

termination

of

porosity

(permeabilityStructural

trapsAnticline

trapFault

trapDome

and

plug

trapStratigraphictrapsUnconformitytrapsLenticular

trapDisconformity84AngularunconformityCombination

trapsCap

rock

Impermeable

rocks

provide

seal

aboveand

below

the

permeable

reservoir

rocks.At

equilibrium

conditions,

the

densitydifferences

between

the

oil,

gas

and

waterphases

can

result

in

boundary

regionsbetween

them

known

as

fluid

contacts,

i.e.gas-oil

and

oil-water

contacts.85Structural

trapa(構造封閉)--

AnticlineLongitudinal

view

of

a

typicalanticline.

The

oil

cannot

escapeupward

because

of

the

imperviousshale

bed

above

the

oil

sand;neither

can

it

travel

downwardbecause

of

the

water

that

isassociated

with

an

accumulation

ofthis

type.86Anticlines－Of

the

many

types

of

structural

features

present

in

the

upperlayers

of

the

earths

crust

that

can

trap

oil,

the

most

important

isthe

anticlines－the

type

of

structure

from

which

the

greater

partof

the

word’s

oil

has

been

produced.Anticlines

are

upfolds

of

beds

in

the

earth’s

crust,

and,

when

theproper

conditions

are

present,

oil

accumulates

within

the

closureof

there

folds.Structural

trap--

AnticlineLateral,

or

end

view,

of

a

typicalanticline.Plan

view

of

a

typicalanticline,

showing

locationsof

longitudinal

view

A-B

andlateral

view

C-D.87Structural

trapsFigure

1.7.

Schematic

cross

sectionshows

deformation

of

earth’s

crust

bybucking

of

layers

into

foldsFigure

1.8.

Simple

kinds

offolds

are

symmetricalanticline

(A),

plungingasymmetrical

anticline

(B),plunging

syncline

(C),

anddome

with

deep

salt

core

(D).Figure

1.9.

Simplified

diagram

ofthe

Milano,

Texas,

fault.88Structural

traps–

dome

&

anticlineFigure

1.15.

Oil

accumulates

in

adome-shaped

structure

(A)

and

ananticlinal

type

of

fold

structure

(B).An

anticline

is

generally

long

andnarrow

while

the

dome

is

circularin

outline.

(Courtesy

of

AmericanPetroleum

Institute)89Structural

traps

--

faultsFigure

1.10.

Simple

kinds

of

faultsare

normal

(A),

reverse

(B),

thrust(C),

and

lateral

(D).Figure

1.11.

Variations

ofnormal

and

reverse

faulting

arerotational

faults

(A)

andupthrust

faults

(B).91Structural

trapsFigure

1.14.

Common

types

of

structural

traps92Structural

trap

–

fault

&

anticlineFigure

1.17.

Shown

in

map

view,fault

traps

may

be

simple

(A)

orcompound

(B).Figure

1.16.

Gas

and

oil

are

trapped

in

afault

trap-a

reservoir

resulting

fromnormal

faulting

or

offsetting

of

strata.

Theblock

on

the

right

has

moved

up

from

theblock

on

the

left,

moving

imperviousshawl

opposite

the

hydrocarbon-bearingformation.

(Courtesy

of

AmericanPetroleum

Institute)93Stratigraphic

traps(地層封閉)94Figure

1.12.

Twogeneral

kinds

ofunconformities

aredisconformity

(A)and

angularunconformities

(B)and

(C).造山運動之應力所造成95沉積過程所造成Figure

1.13.

Basichydrocarbon

reservoirs

arestructural

and

/

orstratigraphic

traps.Stratigraphic

traps96Unconformity－Disconformity－Angnlar

unconformity

PinctoutSand

lensesChanges

in

sedimentationFigure

1.22.

Oil

is

trappedunder

an

unconformity.(Courtesy

of

API)Figure

1.23.

Lenticular

trapsconfine

oil

in

porous

parts

of

therock.

(Courtesy

of

API)97Stratigraphic

trapAn

example

of

a

stratigraphictrap

where

the

oil

zone

pinchesout.A

stratigraphic

trap

where

sand

lenses

are

interspersed

in

a

shale

bed.The

shale

acts

as

a

permeabilitybarrier98Stratigraphic

TrapsA

stratigraphic

trap

wherechanges

in

sedimentationact

as

a

permeability

barrier.An

angular

unconformity

as

anoil

trap.

The

flat-lying

shale

bedabove

the

oil

zones

acts

as

apermeability

barrier.99Stratigraphic

traps

Stratigraphictraps

result

whena

depositionalbed

changesfrom

permeablerock

into

fine-grainimpermeable

rock(Fig.

2.8).100101Combination

traps

Many

reservoirs

exist

as

the

result

of

acombination

of

structural

and

stratigraphicfeatures.In

the

Viking

Graben

area

of

the

northernNorth

Sea,

the

Brent

Sand

reservoirs

arecharacteristically

faulted

deltaic

sandstruncated

by

the

Cretaceous

unconformity.102Reservoir

fluids

and

pressure103

From

a

petroleum

engineering

perspectiveit

is

convenient

to

think

of

sedimentarybasins

as

accumulations

water

in

areasshow

subsidence

into

which

sedimentshave

been

transported.104Reservoir

fluids

and

pressureReservoir

fluidsGasOilwaterWater

─connate

water(connate

interstitial

water)Free

water~AquiferBottom

waterEdge

waterGasSolution

gas105Free

gasReservoir

pressures

Hydrocarbon

reservoirs

are

found

over

a

widerange

of

present

day

depths

of

burial,

themajority

being

in

the

range

500

–

4000

m

ss.

In

our

concept

of

the

petroliferous

sedimentarybasin

as

a

region

of

water

into

which

sedimenthas

accumulated

and

hydrocarbons

have

beengenerated

and

trapped,

we

may

have

anexpectation

of

regional

hydrostatic

gr