網絡化-越南湄公河三角洲城市韌性與經濟增長

PublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorized

Net-

TowardsUrbanResilience

wrked

andEconomicGrowth

inVietnam’sMekongDelta

EastAsia&Pacific

Net-

TowardsUrbanResilience

wrked

andEconomicGrowth

inVietnam’sMekongDelta

EastAsia&Pacific

?2020InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank

1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433

Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:

ThisworkisaproductofthestaffofTheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,analysisandconclusionsexpressedinthisdocumentdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofanyindividualpartnerorganizationofTheWorldBank,itsBoardofDirectors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

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Tableofcontents

PREFACE

7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

8

ABBREVIATIONS

10

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

10

Whatarethespecificbarriers,challenges,andopportunitiesfortheMekongDelta’s

secondarycities?

12

Howhavepastandpresentdevelopmentplansshapedtheseurbaneconomies?

13

Whatprioritiesshouldguidethegovernment’sfutureplansfortheseandothersecondarycities

intheMekongDelta?

14

SECONDARYCITIESINTHEMEKONGDELTAREGION:

WHATTHISREPORTLOOKSAT—ANDWHY

18

Keypoints

19

1

2

SEVENCITIESANDTHEIRLANDSCAPES:HOWHUMANHABITATION

HASSHAPEDTHEMEKONGDELTA

22

Keypoints

23

ArichagriculturalsettingasthericebowlofVietnam

24

Locationalfactorsineconomicactivitiesandurbanresilience

25

3

Keypoints

27

Anationalrural–urbantransformation

28

Urbanpopulationandgrowthnationally

28

Impressiveachievementsinpovertyreductionandservicedelivery

29

Populationgrowthratesarelow,largelybecauseofoutmigration

30

Secondarycitiesareway-stations,notfinaldestinations

30

ONAGRICULTURALMODERNIZATION

32

Keypoints

33

Underemploymentandunemploymentarehigh

34

Economicgrowthatprovincialandcitylevelsisslowing,andsecondarycities’

contributiontoprovincialeconomiesisvolatile

35

Servicesandagriculturemakethelargestcontributiontoprovincialandurban

employmentandeconomicgrowthinamajorityoftheprovincesconsidered

35

Severalfactorsconstrainindustryandservicedevelopment

35

Cityfinancesarenotsustainable

36

Citiesarevulnerabletoeconomicandnaturalshocks

37

4ECONOMICGROWTHANDEMPLOYMENTWILLDEPENDCHIEFLY

4::Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta

5

Keypoints

Urbandevelopmenthasresultedinlow-density,low-risecitycenterswithsprawling

urbanfringes

Citymasterplansaremoreaspirationalthandemanddriven

Urbanexpansionhasresultedinthelossofproductiveagriculturalland

Citymasterplansarebasedontechnocraticstandardsdisconnectedfrom

theurbancontext

Transportplanningisnotsufficientlyinformedbydataordemand

Infrastructureinvestmentsarenotbasedondemandforecasts

Moreuseneedstobemadeofgeospatialdataforplanninganddecisionmaking

Climate-relatedrisksareunderminingtheprovisionofservicessuchaswatersupply,

whileurbanizationisexacerbatingfloodrisk

Institutionalandcapacityissuesreducetheabilitytomanagedisasterriskandadapt

toclimatechange

6

Keypoints

Pillar1:Strengthenregionalinstitutionsandurbannetworks

Pillar2:Incentivizegrowth

Pillar3:Enhanceresilience

Appendix1

SNAPSHOTSOFECOLOGICAL,STRUCTURAL,ANDCLIMATECONDITIONS

ANDRISKSINSECONDARYCITIESINTHEMEKONGDELTAREGION

BacLieu

BenTre

LongXuyen

SocTrang

TanAn

ViThanh

VinhLong

Appendix

2

KEYSTATISTICSFORTHESEVENSECONDARYCITIES

References

Endnotes

38

39

40

41

42

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

54

56

57

58

58

58

59

59

60

60

61

62

68

71

Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta::5

Boxes

Box1

Box1.1

Box2.1

Box5.1

Box5.2

Box5.3

Box5.4

Box6.1

Figures

Figure3.1

Figure3.2

Figure3.3

Figure3.4

Figure3.5

Figure3.6

Figure3.7

Figure4.1

Figure4.2

Figure6.1

Tables

Table1.1

TableA2.1

TableA2.2TableA2.3TableA2.4TableA2.5TableA2.6TableA2.7TableA2.8TableA2.9TableA2.10TableA2.11TableA2.12

TableA2.13TableA2.14

SystemofcitiesinVietnam

21

Studyframeworkandmethodology

3

Theimportanceoflocationalfactorsintheurbaneconomy

7

Disconnectbetweenurbanexpansionplanningandpopulationgrowthinsecondarycities

intheMekongDeltaregion

42

Supply-sidetransportplanninginTanAn

46

DataqualitychallengesimpedecityplanningintheMekongDeltaregion

48

FloodriskandpolicymismatchesinViThanh

49

Goodpracticeexamplesofnetworkingbetweensecondarycities

55

PopulationandGDPgrowthinVietnamacceleratedafterthemid-1980s

28

Area,population,andurbanpopulationvaryconsiderablyinVietnam’ssixregions,2016

29

TheMekongDeltaregionrankedfourthinurbanpopulationgrowthrateamong

Vietnam’ssixregions,2005–2015

29

Thesevencitieshavelowsharesoftheirprovince’spopulation,2015

30

Povertyinthesevencitiesislow,2015

30

Schoolenrollmentratesinthesevencitiesarehigh,2015

31

Healthinfrastructureindicatorsinthesevencitiesaregood,2015

31

Theshareoftheprovincialworkforceinagricultureishigh,2010and2015

34

ViThanh’sGDPgrowthratedeclinedsteeplyduringandafterthe2012drought

37

FrameworkforpromotingresilientgrowthinsecondarycitiesoftheMekongDeltaregion

54

MekongDeltaprovincesandsecondary/capitalcities

20

Keyareaandpopulationstatisticsforthesevensecondarycitiesinthe

MekongDeltaregion,2014

46

Populationandmigrationinthesevensecondarycities,2015

46

GDPandGDPgrowthinVietnam’ssixregions,2016

47

IncreasingGDPinMekongDeltaprovinces,2010–2015

47

DecliningGDPgrowthratesinMekongDeltaprovinces,2010–2015

47

IncreasingGDPinMekongDeltasecondarycities,2010–2015

47

DecliningGDPgrowthratesinMekongDeltasecondarycities,2010–2015

48

GDPandGDPgrowthratesinMekongDeltaprovinces,bysector,2015

48

GDPandGDPgrowthratesinMekongDeltasecondarycities,bysector,2015

48

AgriculturalGDPandGDPgrowthratesinMekongDeltaprovinces,2010–2015

49

IndustryGDPinMekongDeltaprovinces,2010–2015

49

NationalgovernmenttransferstoMekongDeltaprovincesforcapital

andoperatingexpenditures,2015

49

Provincialfinances,2010and2015

50

Cityfinances,2010and2015

50

6::Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta

Maps

Map2.1

Map2.2

Map5.1

Map5.2

Map5.3

Map5.4

Map5.5

Map5.6

Map5.7

MapA1.1

MapA1.2

CanalsystemintheMekongDeltaregion,1926

25

RoadsintheMekongDeltaregion,1926

24

BenTre:Existingurbanextensionin2016andmasterplanto2025atthesamescale

40

LongXuyen:Existingurbanextensionin2016andmasterplansto2025and2030

atthesamescale

40

VinhLong:Existingurbanextensionin2016andmasterplanto2025atthesamescale

41

Plannedurbanextensionandinfrastructureandthelossofproductiveagriculturalland

aroundTanAn,ViThanh,andVinhLonginmasterplansfor2030

42

Plannedurbanextensionandinfrastructureandthelossofproductiveagriculturalland

aroundBacLieu,BenTre,andSocTranginmasterplansfor2030

43

GeologicalmapoftheMekongDeltaregion,2015

44

Eco-agriculturalsubregionsoftheMekongDeltaregion

45

IntensiveagricultureintheMekongDeltaregion,2015

44

FloodingandsalinityintheMekongDeltaregion,2050

44

Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta::7

Preface

T

hisstudyofsevenprovincialcapitalsinVietnam’sMekongDeltaregion,conductedincooperationwiththeVietnamGovernment,isintendedtoinformgovernmentdecision-makingonstrengtheningdisasterandclimateresilienceinthesecities,toenablethemtocontributetoregionaleconomicgrowthandresilience.

ThestudycontributestotheWorldBank’slong-termmultisectoralengagementwiththeVietnamGovernmentontheMekongDeltaregion,whichincludessupportforadevelopmentpolicyoperationcurrentlyunderprepa-rationandadeltaplan.1TheWorldBankhasprovidedinvestmentsupportofmorethan$500millionforurbandevelopmenttoprovincesintheMekongDeltathroughtheCanThoUrbanDevelopmentandResilienceProject,ScalingupUrbanUpgradingProject(SUUP),andotheroperationsunderpreparation.Thisstudybuildsonles-sonsfromtheseoperationsandaimstoinformfutureengagementonurbanizationinthedelta.Itisfullyalignedwiththegovernment’spriorities—asidenti-fiedinitsSocio-EconomicDevelopmentStrategyfor2011–2020andplans—withtheWorldBank’sCountryPartnershipFramework;andwiththeVietnamgovern-ment’sresolutiononSustainableandClimateResilient

DevelopmentoftheMekongDelta(120/NQ-CP),whichlaysoutavisionfor2100andobjectivesfor2050andreinforcesthegovernment’scommitmenttostrengthen-ingresilienceintheregion.2

Theanalysispresentedinthisreportisbasedonassess-mentsinBacLieu,BenTre,LongXuyen,SocTrang,TanAn,VinhLong,andViThanh.Withpopulationsof100,000–500,000,thesecitieswereselectedbecauseoftheWorldBank’slong-termsupportofurbandevelop-mentthereandrequestsfromthecitiesandtheirprov-incestoidentifyinnovativestrategiestoaddressresil-ience.WhilethestudyfocusesontheMekongDelta,itsfindingsconveyimportantlessonsonhowtostrengthenresilienceinothersecondarycitiesinVietnamandaroundtheworld.

Theanalysisreliedonextensivedatacollection,docu-mentreviews,fieldwork,andconsultationsinthesevencities,provinces,andnationwide.Preliminaryfindingsfromthisreportwerepresentedatatechnicalwork-shoporganizedbytheVietnamMinistryofPlanningandInvestmentsandtheWorldBankonApril23,2019andinformeddesignoftheSUUPandoperationsunderpreparation.

8::Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta

Acknowledgements

T

hisreportisaproductofextensiveengage-mentbetweentheGovernmentofVietnamandtheWorldBankonstrengtheningresilienceinVietnam’scitiesandintheMekongDelta.Itwaspre-paredbyateamledbyPoonamPillai,SeniorDisasterRiskManagementSpecialist,TaskTeamLeader,WorldBank;GayatriSingh,SeniorUrbanSpecialist,co-TaskTeamLeader,WorldBank;andincludedShubhagatoDasgupta,consultant,urbaneconomist;RossEisenberg

consultant,urbanplanning;DoanMinh,consultant,urbaneconomist;FrancisGhesquiere,PracticeManager;

HaiYenTran,TeamAssistant,andInnekeHerawatiRoss,SeniorProgramAssistant.PeerreviewersincludedDijiChandrasekharanBehr,SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist;ShigeyukiSakaki,SeniorTransportSpecialist;andHardwickTchale,SeniorAgricultureEconomist—all

fromtheWorldBank.EditingforthisreportwasdonebyBruceRoss-LarsonandthereportwasdesignedbyMikiFerenandezwithsupportfromErikaVargas,SeniorOperationsOfficer,WorldBank.

ThisreportisbasedondetailedcitylevelstudiesthatwerecarriedoutbyalargerteamthatincludedSergeSalat,consultant,urbanplanningspecialist;LinhVu,consultant,urbanplanningspecialist;GeoffreyPayne,consultant,landuseandplanningspecialist;HieuNguyen,consultant,landuseandplanningspecialist;AileenCarrigan,consultant,transportationspecialist;VuAnhTuan,consultant,transportationspecialist;IanWilderspinconsultant,disasterriskmanagementandclimatechangespecialist;TranHoangYen,consultant,disasterriskmanagementandclimatechangespecial-ist;JohnBlock,consultant,waterspecialist;ChampakaRajagopal,consultant,geospatialdata-drivenurbanplanningspecialist;NguyenThanhLong,consultant,geospatialdata-drivenurbanplanningspecialist;andGauriGadgil,consultant,urbanspecialist.

Theteamisgratefultomanyofficialsandstakeholdersfortheirinputs,engagement,andcollaboration.TheseincludeNguyenLanAnh,DeputyDirector,InternationalFinancialRelationsDivision,MinistryofFinance(MoF);

PhamDinhThi,Director,DepartmentofTaxPolicy,MoF;NguyenTuongVan,DirectorGeneral,UrbanDevelopmentAgency,MinistryofConstruction(MoC);VuongAnhDung,DirectorofArchitectureandPlanningDepartment,MoC;TranLanAnh,DeputyDirectorGeneral,UrbanDevelopmentAgency(UDA),MoC;

PhamHuuThanh,DeputyHeadofProjectManagementUnit,UDA,MoC;HoangVinhHung,HeadofUrbanManagementDivision,UDA,MoC;NguyenKimCuc,OfficeDeputyHead,UDA,MoC;PhanAnhDung,ProjectManagementUnit(PMU),UDA,MoC;LuuQuangKhanh,DirectorGeneral,ForeignEconomicRelationsDepartment,MinistryofPlanningandInvestment(MPI);NguyenTuan,DeputyDirectorGeneral,LocalandTerritorialEconomyDepartment,MPI;BuiThiThuThuy,HeadofSouthWestRegion(MekongDelta)Division,MPI;NguyenDucTrung,Director,DepartmentforInfrastructureandUrbanCenters,MPI;PhamPhuBinh,DirectorGeneral,InternationalCooperationDevelopment,MinistryofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment(MONRE);NguyenLeVinh,InternationalCooperationDevelopment,MONRE;andLeThanhKhuyet,Director,GeneralLandManagementAgency,MONRE.Wethankthemall.

Wearealsogratefultoofficials,whohelpedprovideastrongunderstandingofissuesandchallengesattheprovinciallevel.InHauGiangProvince,weespeciallythankTruongCanhTuyen,ProvincialViceChairman;TranMinhHoang,DirectorofDepartmentofFinance;NguyenVanQuan,DeputyDirectorofDepartmentofPlanningandImplementation;NguyenHuynhDuc,DirectorofDepartmentofConstruction;HoVanPhu,DirectorofDepartmentofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment;NguyenVanDong,DirectorofDepartmentofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment;VoMinhTam,PresidentofViThanhCityPeoplesCouncil;otherpro-vincialagencydirectorsanddeputydirectorsoftheSUUPPMU;thePMUforindustrialzonesintheprov-ince;andotherprovincialdepartmentofficials,includingattheDepartmentofLabor,DepartmentofTransport,andtheDepartmentofHealth.InputswerealsoreceivedfromTranQuangTrungandChauLamQuyRut,DeputyHeadsofGeneralPlanningDivision,DepartmentofPlanningandImplementation;PhamHuuKhiem,HeadofInvestmentFinanceDivision,DepartmentofFinance;LeQuocBinh,DeputyHeadofInvestmentFinanceDivision;TrinhTrungTin,DeputyHeadofBudgetManagementDivision,DepartmentofFinance(DoF);?aoV?nNgoc,ViceChairmanofLongXuyenCityPeople’sCouncil;othersinprovincialdepartmentsandrepresentativesofDepartmentofConstruction,DepartmentofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment,

Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta::9

DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment,DepartmentofHealth,andDepartmentofEducation.

InVinhLongProvince,weespeciallythankTruongDangVinhPhuc,DirectorofDepartmentofPlanningandInvestment;VoQuocThanh,ViceDirectorofDepartmentofPlanningandInvestment;LeThiNhung,DirectorofDepartmentofFinance;DiepQuocToan,DirectorofInvestmentandDevelopmentFund;otherprovincialagenciesheads/deputyheadsofbudgetdivisionsoffinanceandinfrastructuremanagementofDepartmentofConstruction;andGeneralOfficeofDepartmentofPlanningandInvestment,amongothers.

Atthecitylevel,inViThanhcity,theteamthanksNguyenVanHoa,ChairmanofViThanhCityPeoplesCouncil(CPC);NguyenVietDung,ViceChairmanofViThanhCPC;cityagencydirectors/deputydirectorsofthePlanningandFinanceOffice,EconomicsOffice,UrbanManagementOffice,OfficeofNationalResourcesandtheEnvironment,PMUforInvestmentandConstruction;andothercityagencies,includingheadsanddeputyheadsofOfficeofCityPeoplesCouncilandCityPeoplesCommittee,OfficeofEducationandTraining,OfficeofHealth,andOfficeofLabor.InLongXuyencity,theteamisgratefultoNguyenHuyCuong,ViceChairmanofViThanh,andothercityofficedirectorsanddeputydirectorsofthePlanningandFinanceOffice,EconomicsOffice,UrbanManagementOffice,SUUPPMU;andotherdivisions,CityStatisticalOffice.InVinhLongcity,theteamwasmetbyNguyenTrungKien,CPCChairmanofVinhLongcity,andcityofficedirectorsanddeputydirectorsofPlanningandFinanceOffice,Economics

Office,UrbanManagementOffice,CityStatisticalOffice,andotheroffices.Totheseofficialsweareindebted

fortheknowledgetheysharedaboutthecityandtheadministrativeandplanningsystem.

Theteamalsobenefitedfromconsultationswithexperts,especiallyNguyenKimSon,HeadofCentreforAnalysisandForecasting,MekongDevelopmentResearch

Institute;Prof.TranTrongHanh,formerRectorofHanoiArchitectureUniversity,FormerDirectorofPlanningandArchitectureDepartment,MinistryofConstruction(MoC);NguyenQuang,Director,UNHabitatinVietNam;NguyenNgocHieu,SeniorLecturer,Vietnam–GermanUniversity;MartijnvandeGroep,independentwaterexpert;andNguyenVietThang,UrbanPlanner,PrincipalofMekongDeltaSpatialPlan,SouthernSpatialPlanningInstitute,MoC.

TheteamthanksCarolynTurk,WorldBankCountryDirectorforVietnam;BenoitBosquet,RegionalDirector,SustainableDevelopment,EastAsiaandPacificRegion;FrancisGhesquiere,PracticeManager;andAbhasJha,PracticeManager,fortheircontinuedsupportandguid-anceinundertakingthisstudy.Theteamisalsograte-fultoStefanieStallmeister,OperationsManager;AhmedA.R.Eiweida,SectorLeader;CiaSjetnan,SeniorCountryOfficer;HoaThiHoang,SeniorUrbanSpecialist;DzungHuyNguyen,SeniorDisasterRiskManagementSpecialist;ManshaChen,UrbanSpecialist;ZhiyuJerryChen,SeniorUrbanSpecialist;DavidMalcolmLord,SeniorWaterSupplyandSanitationSpecialist;VietnamWaterTeam;HelleBuchave,SeniorSocialDevelopmentSpecialist;andGiangNguyen,SocialDevelopment

Specialist,forcommentsandfeedback.Finally,wewouldliketothanktheGlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionandRecoveryforfundingthisstudyandmakingprepa-rationofthisreportpossible.

Abbreviations

CPC

DoF

GDP

GIS

MoC

MoF

MoNRE

MPI

PMU

SMS

SUUP

UDA

UN

CityPeoplesCouncil

DepartmentofFinance

Grossdomesticproduct

Geographicinformationsystem

MinistryofConstruction

MinistryofFinance

MinistryofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentMinistryofPlanningandInvestment

ProjectManagementUnit

Shortmessageservice

ScalingupUrbanUpgradingProject

UrbanDevelopmentAgency

UnitedNations

10::Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta

MekongRivernearCaiThia,MekongDelta,SouthVietnam.Photo:pilesasmiles

Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta::11

Executivesummary

T

hisstudyofsevenprovincialcapitalsinVietnam’sMekongDeltaregion,conductedincooperationwiththeVietnamGovernment,isintendedtoinformgovernmentdecision-makingonstrengtheningdisasterandclimateresilienceinthesecities,toenablethemtocontributetoregionaleconomicgrowthandresilience.TheanalysisisbasedonassessmentsinBacLieu,BenTre,LongXuyen,SocTrang,TanAn,VinhLong,andViThanh.Withpopulationsof100,000–500,000,thesecitieswereselectedbecauseoftheWorldBank’slong-termsupportforurbandevelopmentthereandrequestsfromthecitiesandtheirprovincestoidentifyinnovativestrategiestoaddressresilience.WhilethestudyfocusesontheMekongDelta,itsfindingsconveyimportantlessonsonhowtostrengthenresilienceinothersecondarycitiesinVietnamandaroundthe

world.Theideawastounderstandchallengesandbarriersfacedbythesecitiesandtoidentifygapsandopportunitiestoenhancerisk-informedurbanplanning.

Thereport’smainfindingsandrecommendationsarepresentedhereunderthreebroadheadings:

●Whatarethespecificbarriers,challenges,andopportunitiesfortheMekong’ssecondarycities?

●Howhavepastandpresentdevelopmentplansshapedtheseurbaneconomies?

●WhatprioritiesshouldguidefutureplansfortheseandothersecondarycitiesintheMekong?

12::Networked:TowardsUrbanResilienceandEconomicGrowthinVietnam’sMekongDelta

Whatarethespecificbarriers,challenges,andopportunitiesfortheMekongDelta’ssecondarycities?

Eachofthesevenprovincialcapitalsstudiedinthisreporthasitsownlocationaleconomicfactors,demographictrends,andclimatechangerisks.YetallsevenshareinthecommoncharacteristicsoftheMekongDeltaregion,andtogethertheyaccountformorethanoneinfouroftheregion’surbanresidents.Consideredsecondarycities,theywilldomuchtoshapethefutureofthedelta,sotheirsocio-economicdevelopmentplansneedtoreflectboththeirregionalcommonalitiesandtheirindividualdiffer-ences—alongwiththeimportantfactorsthatdistinguishtheireconomicpotentialfromthatofmuchlargercitiesnearby(CanThoandHoChiMinhCity).

Agriculturewillremainachiefeconomicgrowthdriverforsecondarycitiesintheregion

TheMekongDeltaisoneofVietnam’smostfertileandagri-culturallyproductiveregions,anditsprovincesdependheavilyonagriculture(59%–81%ofGDPin2015).Acrosstheregion,agricultureandagriculture-relatedservicesaccountforalargersourceofemploymentthanindustryorconstruction.Thispictureisunlikelytochangesoon.SecondaryMekongDeltacitieswillremaintiedforsometimetoagriculturalemployment,especiallywiththeirslowpopulationgrowth.So,despitetheemphasisonindustryinpastsocio-economicdevelopmentplans,agri-culturalmodernizationasenvisionedinthegovernment’sAgriculturalRestructuringPlanwillbekeytothesecities’prosperity.ThatPlan,approvedbythePrimeMinisterin2014,identifiessectorgoalsforeconomically,socially,andenvironmentallysustainabledevelopment.

EconomicgrowthissteadyandhasimprovedlivesinsecondaryMekongcities—butisalsoslow,puttinglocalresourcesunderstrain

Althoughthesevencitiesstudiedgenerallyhavesmalleconomiesandsloweconomicgrowth—in2015,eachaccountedfor25%–50%ofitsprovince’stotalproduc-tionvalue—theyhavemadelargesocialdevelopmentgains.Sharesofpeopleunderthepovertylineinthesecitiesfellsteadilyover2010–2015,reaching0.8%–2.8%in2015,keepingupwithVietnam’snationalpovertyreduc-tionoverthesameperiod.Schoolenr