戴煒棟《新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》(第2版)課后習(xí)題詳解

課后習(xí)題第1章導(dǎo)言第2章音位學(xué)第3章形態(tài)學(xué)第4章句法學(xué)第5章語(yǔ)義學(xué)第6章語(yǔ)用學(xué)第7章語(yǔ)言變化第8章語(yǔ)言與社會(huì)第9章語(yǔ)言與文化第10章語(yǔ)言習(xí)得第11章第二語(yǔ)言習(xí)得第12章語(yǔ)言與大腦課后習(xí)題第1章導(dǎo)言1?Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Key:Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguagebecauseitfollowsthemethodologyofotherscientificstudy:Firstofall,itisbasedonfullandsystematiccollectionandinvestigationoflinguisticdata,whichdisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.Thenlinguistsformulatesomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?Key:LinguisticsincludesMicro-LinguisticsandMacro-Linguistics-(1)BranchesofMicro-Linguistics:?Phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;?Phonology:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;?Morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;?Syntax:itstudiestheruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;?Semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;?Pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.(2)BranchesofMacro?Linguistics:?Psycholinguistics:itstudieslanguageanditsrelationwithpsychology.?Sociolinguistics:itstudiesallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.?Appliedlinguistics:itstudiestheapplicationsoflanguagetothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Narrowly,itistheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.?Otherbranches,suchascomputationallinguistics,neurolinguistics.3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?Key:Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.(1)Modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.(2)Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,orover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittendocumentsespeciallytheGreekorRomanClassicalworks,partlybecauseofitspermanence.(3)ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedgrammarframework.4.Ismodemlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Key:Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievethatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.5-Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?Key:Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguage.Modernlinguisticsgivesthespokenlanguagepriorityforsomeobviousreasons:(1)Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“inventecFbyitsuserstorecordspeech.Evenintoday^sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.(2)Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Peopleusemuchmoreorallanguageindailylifethanusingwrittenlanguage.(3)Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshisorhermothertongue,whilewritingislearnedandtaughtlater,whenheorshegoestoschool.(4)Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe"revised^recordofspeech.Thustheirdata,forinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.6-HowisSaussure^sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Key:?InSaussure^sdefinition,languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.?SimilartoSaussurc^sdistinction,Chomsky?sdefinitionaboutcompetenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.?Boththenotionoflangueandcompetencerefertotheabstractandidealnatureoflanguagewithinahumanbeing,andparoleandperformancepointtotheactuallanguageuse.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker^competence,nothisperformance.7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Key:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thedefinitionoflanguageshouldincludefiveessentialfactorsoflanguage:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolicandmostimportantlyhuman-specific.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,linguisticelementsarearrangedsystematicallyratherthanrandomly.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissoundorspeech.Fourth,wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.Fifth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.8-WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC?Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?Key:(l)ArbitrarinessThismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Butitisnotentirelyarbitraryatalllevels.Somewords,suchastheonescreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysoundsaremotivatedinacertaindegree.(2)ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.(3)DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels-Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.(4)DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Thispropertyprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.(5)CulturalTransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.(6)InterchangeabilityInterchangeabilityreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.Key:Thethreemajorfunctionsoflanguagearethedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunctionandthesocialfunction.Thedescriptivefunctionisalsoreferredtoasthecognitive,orreferentialfunction.Itisassumedtobetheprimaryfunctionoflanguage.Itisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformationwhichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.E.g."Thedisasteristhemostseriousonethecountryhaseverseen?5Theexpressivefunctionisalsocalledtheemotiveorattitudinalfunction.Itsuppliedinformationabouttheuser^sfeelings,preferences,prejudicesandvalues.TheexampleisTwillnevergotherefortherestofmylife.^ThesocialfunctionisalsorefeiTedtoastheinterpersonalfunction.Itservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople,e.g."Howareyoudoingrecently?”第2章音位學(xué)1?Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?Key:Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Ofthetwo,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday^sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten?Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageonlythe"revised"recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.2-Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?Key:VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.Ifthevocalcordvibrates,thenthesoundissaidtobevoiced,as/d/,/b/and/g/;whileifthevocalcorddoesnotvibrate,thenthesoundissaidtobevoiceless,suchas/t/，/p/and/k/.3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?Key:Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlycalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.WiththehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurposeInbroadtranscription,thesymbol[1]isusedforthesounds[1]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f|,feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[hel0].Asamatteroffact,thesound|1|inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[1]in[li:f],occumngbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[1],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin"leaf7.Itiscalleddark[1]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[?]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[hel0],thesound[1]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[0],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[1],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[1]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[hel0].IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops:[p,b,t,d,k,g];fricatives:[f,v,0,d,s,zJ3,h];affricates:[tj,dyj；liquids:[1,r];nasals:[m,n,rj];glides:[wj].Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabials:[p,b,m,w];labiodentals:[Ev];dentals:[0,6];alveolars:[t,d,n,s,z,r,1];palatal:3,tj,d];velars:[k,g,g];glottal:[h].5-WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?Key:Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:?Accordingtothepositionofthetongueinthemouth:front,central,back?Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels?Accordingtotheshapeofthelips:roundedvs.unrounded?Accordingtothelengthofthevowels:tensevs.laxorlongvs.short6.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescription:1)voicedpalatalaffricateKey:[d引2)voicelesslabiodentalfricativeKey:[f]3)voicedalveolarstopKey:[d]4)front,close,shortKey:[i]5)back,semi-open,longKey:[D:]6)voicelessbilabialstopKey:[p]Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1)[d]Key:voicedalveolarstop2)[1]Key:voicedalveolarliquid3)[tnKey:voicelesspalatalaffricate4)|w|Key:voicedbilabialglide5)[J]Key:back,close,short6)[oe]Key:front,open7-Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[I]and[l],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Key:(1)Phonologyandphoneticsdifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeach,other,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.(2)Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethatgovernsthedistributionbetween[l]and[t],[ph]and[p].8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Key:Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme[1JinEnglishcanberealizedasdarkfl],clear[1],whichareallophonesofthephonemefl].9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Key:(1)Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[1]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy|lbik|[lkbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.(2)Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying'afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighboringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Forexample,the[i:]isnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtoanadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreetindiscreet,correctincorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[nJsoundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[g];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound[n],weare"copying"afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.(3)Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintherecorrespondingformssignature,designationandparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign一signature,resign一resignation,phlegm一phlegmatic,paradigm一paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?Key:Suprasegmentalfeaturesrefertothephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning?Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofwordstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Theworddesertisanexcellentexample.Tonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Theyarecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish?Spokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.第3章形態(tài)學(xué)1?Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacingabetweeneachmorphemeandthenext：a.microfileb.bedraggledc.announcementd.predigestione.telecommunicationf.forefatherg.psyehophysicsh.mechanistKey:a.micro+fileb.be+draggle+edc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+ione.tele+communicate+ionf.fbre+fatherg.psycho+physicsh.mechan+ist2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-orsuffix:-ormeaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,"onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc.^translator,“onewhotranslates'5Key:(1)suffix:-ablemeaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossiblestemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:acceptable,"canbeaccepted";respectable,"canberespected^(2)suffix:-lymeaning:functionalstemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:freely,"adverbialformof'free“；quickly,"adverbialformof'quick'".(3)suffix:meaning:thepersonreceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany";interviewee、"onewhoisinterviewed^meaning:"without；not"stemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:asymmetric,"lackingsymmetry'5;asexual,"withoutsexorsexorgans"Key:(1)prefix:dis-meaning:showinganoppositestemtype:addedtoverbsornounsexamples:disapprove,"donotapprove'5;dishonesty,"lackofhonesty"(2)prefix:antimeaning:against,opposedtostemtype:addedtonounsoradjectivesexamples:antinuclear,"opposingtheuseofatomicweaponsandpower";antisocial,"opposedorharmfultothelawsandcustomsofanorganizedcommunity/'(3)prefix:countermeaning:theoppositeofstem:addedtonounsoradjectivesexamples:counterproductive,"producingresultsoppositetothoseintended^;counteract,“actagainstandreducetheforceoreffectof(sth?廣4.Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.Key:(l)thethirdpersonsingular(2)thepasttense(3)thepresentperfect(4)thepresentprogressive5.Determinewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtooneanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivationa)go,goes,going,goneb)discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,discoverabilityc)inventor,inventor's,inventors,inventors5d)democracy,democrat,democratic,democratizeKey:a)inflectionb)derivationc)derivationd)derivation6.Thefollowingsentencescontainbothinflectionalandderivationalaffixes.Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.a)Thefarmer'scowsescaped.b)Itwasraining.c)Thosesocksareinexpensive.d)Jimneedsthenewercopy.e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.f)Shequicklyclosedthebook.g)Thealphabetizationwentwell.Key:a)Thefarmer^cowsescaped.b)Itwasraining.c)Thosesocksareinexpensive.d)Jimneedsthenewercopy.e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.f)Shequicklyclosedthebook.g)Thealphabetizationwentwell.第4章句法學(xué)1?Whatissyntax?Key:Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgovernstheformationofsentences.2.Whatisphrasestructurerule?Key:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.3-Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'scategory?Key:Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namely,meaning,inflationanddistribution.4.Whatiscoordinatestructure?Whatpropertiesdoesithave?Key:Thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionarecalledcoordinatestructures.Ithasfourproperties:first,thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategories.Second,acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated.Third,coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Fourth,thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.5?Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatruledoeseachelementplay?Key:Thephraseelementsarespecifiers,complementsandmodifiers.Specifiershelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Theytypicallymarkaphrase.Thecomplementsprovideinformationaboutent讓iesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.Modifiersspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.6-Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?Key:ThestructurethatformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationpropertiesiscalledthedeepstructure.Thestructurethatcorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformationiscalledsurfacestructure.7-Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.b)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.c)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschool.d)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.Key:8.Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.a)richinmineralsb)oftenreaddetectivestoriesc)anaugmentagainsttheproposalsd)alreadyabovethewindowKey:a)richinmineralsc)theargumentagainsttheproposalscomplementagainsttheproposalsd)alreadyabovethewindowPPspecifierheadcomplementalreadyabovetowardsthewindow9-Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifiers),thendrawthetreestructures.a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.b)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.c)Themanexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday?d)Awoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedinthestorm.Key:(Themodifiersarerepresentedbyitalics.)a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.InflP(S)storm.Awoodenhutnearthelakecallapsedinthe10.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.b)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.Key:a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.InflP(=S)b)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.S11?Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.a)YouknowthatIhatewar.b)GenycarftbelievethefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.c)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.d)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.Key:a)YouknowthatIhatewar.e)S12.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.b)Herbertboughtahousethatsheloved.c)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.Key:a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.DeepstructureSurfaceStructureb)Herbertboughtahousethatsheloved.DeepstructureVPDetNHerbertboughtSurfaceStructureCPhouselovedthat.NPNc)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.DeepstructureCPDetSurfaceStructureCPcsNPVPNPNPInflVPThegirlMomheadoresemajorsmlinguisticstI13-Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.a)Wouldyoucometomorrow?b)WhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?c)Whobrokethewindow?Key:a)Wouldyoucometomorrow?DeepstructureyouSurfacestructurewouldb)WhatwasHelenbringingtotheparty?Deepstructure第5章語(yǔ)義學(xué)1?Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Key:(1)Namingtheory:Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Therefore,wordsarejustlabelsornamesforthings.(2)Conceptualism:Accordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto,i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld;rather,alinguisticformandthethingitreferstointherealworldarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.(3)Contextualism:Accordingtothistheory,meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,useandcontext,whicharecloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Thistheoryhasattractedthoselingu