數(shù)字時鐘設(shè)計

參考文獻參考文獻[1]何一鳴.電子技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)教程[M].北京：電子工業(yè)出版社，2006，6.138-227.[2]張金.電子設(shè)計工程師之路[M].北京：電子工業(yè)出版社，2014.[3]王傘.常用電路模塊分析與設(shè)計指導(dǎo)第2版[M].北京：清華大學(xué)出版社,2007.[4]黃繼昌.數(shù)字集成電路應(yīng)用300例[M].北京：人民郵電出版社，2004.[5]康華光.電子技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)（數(shù)字部分）[M].北京：高等教育出版社，1999.[6]臧春華.電子線路設(shè)計及應(yīng)用[M].北京：高等教育出版社，2004.[7]王永華.數(shù)字邏輯與數(shù)字系統(tǒng)[M].北京：電子工業(yè)出版社，2006，7.[8]胡翔駿.電路基礎(chǔ)簡明教程[M].北京：高等教育出版社，2004.[9]胡宴如.模擬電子技術(shù)[第二版M].北京：高等教育出版社，2004.[10]陳曉文.電子線路課程設(shè)計[M].北京：電子工業(yè)出版社，2004.

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附錄1電氣原理圖附錄2附錄2PCB版圖外文翻譯外文翻譯原文：MeasurementofTransmissionLineParametersfromSCADADataG.L.KusicandD.L.GarrisonAbstract--Transmissionlineequivalentcircuitparametersareoften25%to30%inerrorcomparedtovaluesmeasuredbytheSCADAsystem.Theseerrorscausetheeconomicdispatchtobewrong,andleadtoincreasedcostsorincorrectbilling.Theparametererrorsalsoaffectcontingencyanalysis,shortcircuitanalysis,distancerelaying,machinestabilitycalculations,transmissionplanning,andStateEstimatorAnalysis.Aneconomicexampleisusedtodemonstratetheaffectoftransmissionlineerrors.SCADAmeasurementsfromseveralutilitiesareusedtocomputethe‘realworld’valueofthetransmissionlineparameters.StateEstimationwiththeestimatedparametersiscomparedtothecomputationsusingthetheoreticalvalues.IndexTerms—SCADAMeasurements,StateEstimation,TransmissionLineParameterEstimationI.INTRODUCTIONUtilitiesinmostinstancesusetheoreticalvaluesforlineparameterscalculatedfromideallinegeometrysuchasheightofconductoraboveflat,constantresistanceearth.Earthresistivityisvariablewithterrain.Conductorsageffectsareimpossibletoestimateoverhillyterrain.Usuallyshieldwiresaregroundedateachtowerinsteadoffloatingovertheentirelinelength.Lineresistancevarieswithcurrent,theambienttemperatureandwindeffects.Anoutageisrequiredtomeasurethelinechargingequivalentcapacitance,onlyifone-sidedexcitationdoesnotcausetoomuchvoltageriseontheopen-circuitend.Constructionofnewparallellineswithmutualcoupling,affectsolddatabasevalues.Theseriesreactanceofatransmissionlineisrarelymeasured,sothevalueusedisforanideallytransposedline.Linesarenottransposedbecauseoftheaddedconstructioncosttomechanicallyalterpositionsoftheconductorswithrespecttothesupportpolesevery1/3thedistance.Withallofthesevariationsfromidealconditions,andfewrealmeasurements,utilitiesoftenhaveasmuchas25%to30%errorintheirdatabaseparameterscomparedtothe'realworld'values.UtilitiesuseMWandMVARmeteringforrevenue.Transmissionlinelossesareusuallylessthan3%ofthetotalgeneration.However,lineparametersfromatheoreticaldatabaseareusedtocalculatelosscoefficients,ordeterminetheincrementallossfactors,inordertosetthedispatchpointforgenerators(outputpower).Ifaccuratevaluesoflineparametersre-allocatethegeneratorpowers,andreducetransmissionlossesby0.1%,thistranslatesintoimmenseenergysavingsoveryearsofoperatingthepowersystem.Forexample,at0.1%savings,alargeutilitytransmitting10000GWhannually,0.6LoadFactor,fuelat$20/MBTUand10.5Milrate,maysave$11MillionperyearforbulkpowerintheeasternU.S.Monitoringthestateofthepowersystemisamajorsecurityfunctionofthecomputersystemusedatthecentralcontrolcenter(dispatchcenter)ofutilities.Voltagesandpowerflowonlinesandbusesinthecontrolareaofthepowersystemaremonitoredontheorderofevery2seconds.Ifthemeasureddataarebeyondsafeoperatingtolerancelimits,thealarmsgeneratedmustbe'cleared'bythedispatcherthroughswitchinglinecompensatorssuchascapacitorbanksandshuntreactors,adjustingvariabletaptransformers,ortransferringgeneratoroutput,etc.Sothatdispatcheractioncanbebasedonreliableandcompleteinformation,measurementsofvoltagesandpowerflowareprocessedbyaStateEstimatorwhichdetectsfaultymeasurementtransducers(baddata)and'fillsin'lostmeasurementswhenRemoteTerminalUnits(RTU's)haveinterruptedsignals.StateEstimatorcalculationsarebasedupontheoreticalvaluesfortransmissionlineparameters.ErrorsintheanalyticalvaluesfortransmissionlineparameterslimittheStateEstimator’scapabilitytodetect'baddata',andmakeitineffectiveasamonitoringtool.Withtransmissionlineerrors,thenormalizedresidualsarelargerthantheyshouldbe.Atleastoneutilityadjustsitslineparameterdatabasetomatchtherealworldtransmissionlinesinordertoimprovethestatecalculated.II.ANECONOMICEXAMPLEConsiderthe5bustransmissionnetworkshowninfigure1,wherethecostofgenerationisbidasshownfor4busses.Thetotalloadis669MWandlocatedatbussesB,C,andD.Thetransmissionlineflowsascalculatedforloss-lesslines[1]isshowninfigure1.TheflowontransmissionlineXED=.0297islimitedto240MW.TheothertransmissionlinereactancesareXAB=.0281,XBC=.0108,XCD=.0297XAD=.0303,XAE=.0064andareloss-less.Theopenarrowsinfigure1indicateinjectedpower,andtheblackfillarrowsindicateloadatthebusInfigure1,ofalltheLocationalMarginalPrice(LMP)bidsforgeneration,the600MW@$10/MWhatbusEiscompletelyutilizedbeforethe69MWatbusAisemployed.Thetransmissionlineflowsthatresultfromthisdispatchareshownonthefigure.Thetotaloperatingcostis$6966/h.Fig.1EconomicDispatchfor669MWLoadtoUtilizetheLowestCostofAvailableGenerationAstheloadonthesystemuniformlyincreasesto300MWatbussesB,C,andD,theLMPdispatchwouldattempttouseallthe210MWofinexpensivepower(110MW@$14/MWhand100MW@$15/MWh)atbusAbefore90MWofthe$30/MWhpoweratbusDisused.Thetotalcostwouldbe$11,740/h.However,when210MWisdispatchedatbusA,thisresultsin243MWofflowonlineE-Dtoviolatetheconstraint.Asaresult,only166MWoftheinexpensivepoweratbusAisutilizedand124MWatbusDisrequired.Totaloperationcostincreasesto$12,100/hbecauseoftheconstraint.Thedispatchisshowninfigure1a.IfthetransmissionlineE-Dhasa‘realworld’reactanceofXED=1.25*.0297,orinotherwordshasameasured25%morereactancethanthedatabase,thedispatchfor900MWloadutilizesallthelowcostpowerbecausethepowerflowdoesnotviolatetheE-Dlineconstraint.Thetransmissionlinepowerflowsforthiscaseareshownonfigure2.Thetotalcostofthedispatchis$11,740/h.Theexampleshowninfigure1wasemployedbyanEasternUSApowerpooltodemonstrateconstraintsinlineflow.Figure2showsthatpowerflowscomputedwithcorrectlineparametersaresignificantlydifferent,tothepointwherelargeeconomicdifferencesarepresent.Correctionsarerarelymadetotransmissionlineparametersinordertomatchmeasuredlineflowsbecausesourcesofmeasurementerrorareunknown.Inautilityitalsodifficulttochangeparametersinthedatabasebecausesomanydifferentgroupswithintheutility,e.g.,planning,relaying,security,etc.,mustchangetheirvaluesorsettingsoffieldequipment.III.ESTIMATIONOFTRANSMISSIONLINEPARAMETERSForshorttomediumlength,comparedtoa60Hzwavelength,3-phasetransmissionlinesaremodeledbypi-equivalentscalculatedfromidealgeometryandoperatedunderbalancedphaseconditions.Thevoltagemagnitudesatthelineterminationsareanaverageofthephasemeasurements,usuallyobtainedwith1%to2%accuracystep-downtransformermeasurements.Fig.1AEconomicDispatchfor900MWLoadLimitedbyConstraintonLineE-DTherealandreactivepowerflowforthepi-equivalentisasumofflowsonthe3phasesandobtainedasaninstantaneousproductof1%to2%accuratecurrentmeasurementswiththevoltagemeasurements.NeglectingthesmallcontributionsofA/Dconvertersatthetransducersandcomputernumericalwordlength,theoverallaccuracyofpowerflowmeasurementsalsoisontheorderof1%to2%.Figure2EconomicDispatchfor900MWLoadwithXED=1.25*.0297TransmissionLineReactance(Nolineconstraintsviolated)TheEasternpowerpoolusedforfigure1and1aprovidedaSCADA‘snapshot’ofpowerflowandvoltagemeasurementsforthe3-busnetworkshowninfigure3.Dataofthe‘snapshot’ispresentedinfigure4.NoticemorerealpowercomesoutoflineL1thangoesintoit(S1andS2),butthisanomalyisduetomeasurementtoleranceastherealpowerdifferenceis~2%oftheabsolutevalue.‘Snapshot’isStateEstimatorterminologyforanalmostsynchronizedsetofmeasurementsbecauseashorttimeinterval(milliseconds)existsfromtheinitialmeasurementtothefinalmeasurementforaslowlychangingload/generation.Fig.3SCADAMeasurementPointsona3BusNetworkFig.4SCADAMeasurementsforFigure3AStateEstimationcomputation‘smoothes’thedata,detectsbadtransducers,andcalculatesthebestestimateofthevoltageandphaseangleatbussesofthenetwork,i.e.,the‘state’ofthenetwork.Thecalculatedstateisaweightedleastsquaresestimate‘bestfit’tothemeasurementsusingdatabasevaluesforthepi-equivalenttransmissionlineparameters,R+jXfortheseriesp.u.impedanceelements–jY/2fortheshuntp.u.susceptanceatbothendsoftheline.Analyticalmethodsexisttoestimatetransmissionlineparametersfrom‘snapshots’inconjunctionwiththeStateEstimator.ThefirstsuchmethodappearedsoonafterthestartofStateEstimation[2].Manycontributionsweremadearound1990ofwhich[3,4]aretypical,newtechniquescontinuetoevolve[5].Arecentsummaryisreference[6].Thedata‘snapshot’offigure4wasusedtoestimatethetransmissionlineparametersoffigure3byamethodofpropagatingresidualerrorsofStateEstimationrelatedto[5]andfindingtheworst‘fit’line.Theresultsoftheparameterestimationwiththismethodarepresentedinfigure5.Only2transmissionlinesoftheFigure3networkcouldbeestimatedbeforeresidualerrors‘swampedout’furtherdetection.LinesBCandABshow25%errorsinlinechargingsusceptancecomparedtothedatabase.Thereisa50%errorintheestimatedlineresistanceoflineBCcomparedtothedatabasevalue,whichmaybeduetoanoperatingtemperaturedifference.Fig.5ResultsofTransmissionLineParameterEstimationforNetworkofFigure3withSCADADataofFigure4TheestimatedvaluesforlinechargingsusceptanceoftransmissionlinesBCandABaffectreactivecompensationintheirvicinity.The50%differenceinresistanceoflineBCmayaffectthetransmissionlosscoefficientsinthevicinity.PowerflowcalculationswithS1toS6dataoffigure4showthatpowerflowonthenetworklinesismuchclosertomeasuredvaluesusingtheestimatedparametersthanwiththedatabasevalues.IV.VERIFICATIONOFTHEPARAMETERESTIMATIONMETHODItisdifficulttoprovethatestimatedtransmissionlineparametersaretruetothe‘realworld’values.AnalyticalcasesusingpowerflowcomputationsfromstandardIEEE5bus,14buscases,etc.,thencorruptingthelineparametersandflowsbyrandomnoise,havebeenusedinordertoobtaintestthealgorithm.However,thisanalyticalprocessdoesnotmatch‘realworld’data.A‘realworld’casetoverifytheparameterestimationalgorithmisasfollows.Parametersfortransformersareperhapsthebestknownoflargepowerhandlingelementsbecauseofmeasurementsperformedbythemanufacturer.The3paralleltransformersanda4thseriestransformershowninfigure6a,hadtheSCADAsnapshotmeasurementsshowninfigure6b.Fig.6aParallelandSeriesTransformersFig.6bSCADAMeasuredFlowsfortheParallelandSeriesTransformersTheparameterestimationprogramappliedtothedataoffigure6bresultedinthevaluesshowninfigure7.ThereisexactagreementofestimatedanddatabasereactancefortransformerTABK63,andsomedifferenceinresistance.TheestimatedparametersforTABK62matchthedatabasevaluesforTABK60,andtheestimatedvaluesforTABK60matchthedatabasevaluesforTABK62.ThesetwoanalysisdiscrepancieswereresolvedwhentheutilitydiscoveredTABK62andTABK60hadtheirfieldinstrumentationwiresswitchedattheremote-terminalunit(RTU).AmoreextensiveverificationoftheparameterestimationmethodwasobtainedinverycloselycontrolledlaboratorytestbedexperimentsconductedatNASAGlennResearchCenter[7].Thesetests,performedonbothradialandloopnetworks,consideredatransmissionlinefaulttobeanychangeinthetransmissionlinetestbedvaluecomparedtothepre-testorcalibrateddatabasevalue.Inthelaboratorytests,discretephysicalresistorswereaddedasseriesorline-to-groundcomponentsinthetestbed,andtheparameterestimationprogramwasrequiredtodetectthealteredlinefromadatasnapshot.Thetestsfoundthedeliberateerrorintroducedinatransmissionline100%ofthetimeoverwiderangesofnetworkoperatingconditions.Thetestsdemonstratedthelimitofthetransmissionlineparameterestimationprogramisthecapabilitytoestimatelineswithresidualsabovethethresholdof‘noise’duetomeasurementandothertransmissionlineerrorsinthenetwork.Forthepowersystemcaseshowninfigures3,4,and5,only2of3transmissionlinescouldbeestimated.Forthetransformercaseinfigures6a,6b,andfigure7,only3of4transformerscouldbeparameterestimatedbeforethealgorithmbecamelimitedby‘noise’.Fig.7DatabaseandParameterEstimationsforaTransformerGroup(TABK62andTABK60switchedinthefield)V.ALARGENETWORKTESTCASEThe19bus,42line,2transformernetworkshowninfigure8hadaSCADAsnapshotofonlytransmissionlineflowsandvoltageswithwhichtoperformtheparameterestimation.Inthefigure,thebusnumbersareincircles.Often2or4transmissionlinesareinparallelfrombus-to-bus.TheSCADAdatasnapshotforfigure8consistedof170measurementsoflineflowsplusvoltages.AportionoftheSCADAdataispresentedinfigure9.The170SCADAmeasurementswereusedtocomputethestateestimateFromtheStateEstimatorresiduals,theworstfitofestimatedparameterstodatabasevalueswasforthetransmissionlinebetweenbus#8and#16,followedbytheparallellinesbetweenbus#6andbus#8,etc.,intheorderpresentedinfigure9.Valuesofestimatedtransmissionlineparametersarepresentedinfigure10forlinesthatcouldbeestimatedbefore‘noise’limitedFigure8TestNetworkof19BussesFig.9SCADADataforPartofFigure8(p.u.,100MVABase)Fig.10EstimatedLineParametersfor9Linesfromthe19BusNetwork(Figure8)Acomparisonoffigure10estimatedparametersagainstthefigure9databasevaluesshows50%to400%differencesinlinecharging.Estimatedresistancecomparedtodatabaseresistancevariesfromcloseagreementto300%difference.Thelinesbetweenbus#15andbus#6show300%differenceinreactancesestimatedcomparedtodatabase.Thesearesignificantdifferences.BymatchinglineterminationP,Q,Vinaoneline,twobuspowerflow,thecalculationshowsestimatedlinesareacloserfittoSCADAflows.AStateEstimatorcomputationforthe19bustopologyoffigure8withdatabaselineparametershad50pointsofnormalizedresiduals>.00005but<=.0003,andnopointshigher.Thesamesnapshotwithestimatedtransmissionlineparametershadonly28pointsinthissamerange.Thisisamuchcloser‘fit’ofcalculationstomeasurements.VI.CONCLUDINGREMARKSTheparameterestimationmethodwasverifiedbyseveralfieldtests,simplecomputations,andinlaboratoryexperiments.Physicalchecks,suchasSCADAmeasurementsonopen-endexcitationoftransmissionlines,shouldbeusedbyutilitiestomeasurelinecapacitancewhenalineisrestoredtoservice.SCADA-basedestimatesaremoreaccuratethantheoreticaldatabaseparameters.Thepropertyofparameterestimation,aseventuallylimitedby‘noise’inmeasurementsandothertransmissionlineerrors,forcesthealgorithmtobeappliedtoonly15to30busportionsoflargernetworks.Analysisisperformeduntilthealgorithmbecomeslimited,thenthetestareaismovedtoanewportionofthelargernetwork.VII.REFERENCES[1]Wood,A.J.,andWollenberg,B.F.“PowerGeneration,Operation,andControl”,text,J.Wiley,1996,ISBN0-47158699-4[2]Debs,A.,“ParameterEstimationforPowerSystemsintheSteady-State”,IEEETrans.Power,Vol.19,#6,Dec.1974[3]Wu,F.F.,“DetectionofTopologyErrorsbyStateEstimation”,IEEEPESWinterMeeting,1988[4]Liu,W-H.,E.,Wu,F.F.,andLun,S-M,“ObservabilityAnalysisandBadDataprocessingforStateEstimationwithEqualityConstraints”,IEEETrans.Pow.Sys.,Vol.PWRS-3,May1988[5]Liu,W-H.,E.,Wu,F.F.,andLun,S-M.,“EstimationofParameterErrorsfromMeasurementResidualsinStateEstimation”,Trans.Pow.Sys.,Vol.7,No.1,Feb1992[6]Zarco,P.andExposito,A.G.,“PowerSystemParameterEstimation:ASurvey”,IEEETrans.Pow.Sys.,Vol15,No.1,Feb,2000[7]Kusic,G.L.,“ExperimentalTestsonPowerSystemMonitoringandFaultDetection”,reporttoNASAGlennresearchCenterfromPowerSystemsConsultants,Inc,Dec24,2002Dr.GeorgeKusic,M1953,receivedhisBSEE(1957),MSEE(1964),andPh.DEE(1968)fromCarnegie-MellonUniversity.Sincehereceivedhisdoctorate,hehasbeenafacultymemberoftheDepartmentofElectricalEngineeringattheUniversityofPittsburgh.Hisareasofinterestarethepowerfieldandelectronics.Dr.KusichasnumerousIEEEpublicationsinthepowerfieldandistheauthorofatextbook,“Computer-AidedPowerSystemAnalysis”,byPrentiss-Hall.In1981Dr.KusicfoundedPowerSystemsConsultantstoprovideelectricalengineeringconsultingtovariousfirms,utilities,andgovernmentalagencies.Amongthefirm’sclientsareWestinghouseElectric,IBM,Commonwealth-Edison,AdvancedControlSystems,andNASA.ForNASA,Dr.KusicinitiatedtheuseofStateEstimationandpowerflowmethodsontheInternationalSpaceStation.Formanufacturers,Dr.Kusichaswritten,installed,andfield-testedmanysoftwareprogramsforEnergyManagementSystems(EMS).Dr.Kusicalsohasusedhiselectronicsbackgroundtodevelopuniqueinstrumentationforpowersystemmeasurements.DavidL.GarrisonreceivedhisBSEE(1971)andMEEE(1976),fromClemsonUniversity.Hehas30yearsengineeringexperience,firstwithSanteeCooperasatransmissionplannerfor8yearsandcurrentlywithDukeEnergywithDukeEnergyfor22yearsinitstransmissionplanningandoperatingareas.

譯文：基于SCADA數(shù)據(jù)庫參數(shù)估計進行傳輸線測量G.L庫斯科和D.L.加里森摘要——由SCADA系統(tǒng)的測量值看來，傳輸線的等效電路參數(shù)通常有25%到30%的誤差比。這些錯誤導(dǎo)致了經(jīng)濟調(diào)度是錯誤的，并導(dǎo)致成本增加或不正確的計費。參數(shù)誤差也影響事故分析，短路分析，距離保護，整機穩(wěn)定性計算，輸電規(guī)劃，和狀態(tài)估計分析。具一個經(jīng)濟上的例子來證明傳輸線誤差的影響，從幾家公用事業(yè)公司的SCADA測量用于計算傳輸線參數(shù)的“現(xiàn)實”的值。與估計的參數(shù)與使用理論值比值的計算。關(guān)鍵詞：SCADA測量，狀態(tài)估計，線路參數(shù)估計一、引言在大多數(shù)情況下，公用事業(yè)企業(yè)的理論值線參數(shù)的理想幾何線如導(dǎo)體上方平高度計算，恒電阻接地。地電阻率隨地形可變。在丘陵地形中導(dǎo)線弧垂的影響是無法估計的。通常屏蔽線在每個塔接地以代替浮在整個線路長度。線路電阻隨電流、環(huán)境溫度和風速的影響。一個斷供期需要測量線路充電電容，只有片面的激勵不在開路端電壓上升的原因太多了。與平行線相互耦合的新建筑，影響舊的數(shù)據(jù)庫值。很少測量傳輸線的串聯(lián)電抗器，因此使用的值是一個理想的換位線。線路不換位，因為增加了施工成本的機械會改變導(dǎo)線相對于支撐桿每1/3的距離的位置。所有這些變化從理想的條件，和一些實際測量，公用事業(yè)通常有25%到30%的錯誤在他們的數(shù)據(jù)庫中的參數(shù)相比于“現(xiàn)實”的值一樣。

公用事業(yè)使用有功功率和無功功率計量收入。傳輸線損耗通常小于3%的總代。然而，從理論的數(shù)據(jù)庫行參數(shù)來計算損失系數(shù)，或用機組的調(diào)度點（輸出功率）確定增量損失的因素。如果線路參數(shù)重新分配電力發(fā)電機的精確值，并減少0.1%的傳輸損耗，這將轉(zhuǎn)化為巨大的能量積蓄在電力系統(tǒng)運行。例如，在0.1%時的儲蓄，大量的電力傳輸在10000瓦左右，負荷率0.6，達到20美元/百萬英熱單位和10.5密耳率的燃料，每年在美國東部電力可以節(jié)省11000000美元。監(jiān)測電力系統(tǒng)的狀態(tài)是在中央控制中心的計算機系統(tǒng)的一個主要的安全功能（調(diào)度中心）的事業(yè)。對電力系統(tǒng)的控制線路、母線電壓和功率流在每2秒級監(jiān)測。如果測量數(shù)據(jù)超出安全操作的容忍限度，警報產(chǎn)生必須“清除”，由調(diào)度員通過切換線路補償電容器、并聯(lián)電抗器等，調(diào)節(jié)可變抽頭變壓器，發(fā)電機的輸出或轉(zhuǎn)移等，調(diào)度員可以根據(jù)可靠和完整的信息，通過電壓和功率流的測量狀態(tài)估計檢測故障的測量傳感器（壞數(shù)據(jù)處理）和“填補”失去了遠程終端的單元（RTU測量時有中斷信號）。狀態(tài)估計的計算基于傳輸線參數(shù)的理論值。估計器的性能是在輸電線路參數(shù)的理論值誤差極限狀態(tài)檢測不良數(shù)據(jù)，并使其無效的監(jiān)視工具。隨著傳輸線的誤差，標準化殘差大于應(yīng)該他們。至少一個效用調(diào)整線的參數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)庫與現(xiàn)實的輸電線路可以提高狀態(tài)計算。在圖1中，所有的節(jié)點邊際電價（LMP）投標發(fā)電，600兆瓦@10美元/兆瓦時在總線完全利用之前采用的69兆瓦的總線。結(jié)果這個調(diào)度的傳輸線流動在如圖所示。營業(yè)總成本是6966美元/小時。圖1利用現(xiàn)有發(fā)電成本最低的669兆瓦負荷經(jīng)濟調(diào)度對系統(tǒng)的負載均勻地增加到300兆瓦的總線B，C，D，LMP調(diào)度會嘗試使用所有的210兆瓦的廉價電力（110兆瓦@14美元/兆瓦和100兆瓦@15美元/兆瓦時）在總線前90兆瓦的30美元/兆瓦時在總線D電力應(yīng)用?？偝杀臼?1740美元/小時。然而，當210兆瓦是派出總線時，這個結(jié)果在網(wǎng)上給違反約束的243兆瓦的供流。因此，在總線利用124兆瓦的總線D只需要166兆瓦電力這么便宜。由于約束，總運營成本增加12100美元/小時。調(diào)度圖1a所示。如果傳輸線ED具有固定=1.25*“現(xiàn)實”的電抗。0297，或者說有一個測量25%電抗比數(shù)據(jù)庫，900兆瓦負荷調(diào)度利用所有的低成本電力因為潮流不違反E-D線約束。在這種情況下，如圖2所示的輸電線路功率流。調(diào)度的總成本是11740美元/小時。如圖1所示的例子是一位美國東部電網(wǎng)用來演示線流動的限制。圖2顯示了功率流與正確的線路參數(shù)計算有明顯的不同，在經(jīng)濟差異大的點。修正很少用傳輸線參數(shù)以匹配測量的線流，由于測量誤差的來源是未知的。一個實用的也很難更改數(shù)據(jù)庫中的參數(shù)太多不同群體的效用，例如，規(guī)劃，保護，安全，等，必須改變其值或設(shè)置現(xiàn)場設(shè)備。圖1A900兆瓦負荷經(jīng)濟調(diào)度的在線版的約束限制二、輸電線路參數(shù)估計短至中等長度，比60赫茲波，三相輸電線路等值的PI從理想的幾何形狀和平衡相的條件下操作的計算模型。在線路終端電壓幅值的相位測量值的平均值，通常獲得1%到2%的準確性的降壓變壓器的測量。圖2900兆瓦負荷經(jīng)濟調(diào)度和XED=1.25*0297輸電線路電抗（無線約束違反）等效PI的有功和無功潮流是一筆流動的3個階段，得到1%的瞬時產(chǎn)品2%與電壓測量精確的電流測量。忽略在傳感器和計算機數(shù)值貢獻較小字長的A/D轉(zhuǎn)換器，功率流的整體測量精度也在1%到2%。用于11a的圖3所示的總線網(wǎng)絡(luò)提供了一個系統(tǒng)的“快照”的潮流和電壓測量圖的東電池?！翱煺铡苯o出的數(shù)據(jù)在圖4中。多注意真正的力量來自于進線L1（S1和S2）它，但這種異常是由于測量誤差為實際功率差2%的絕對值?！翱煺铡笔菭顟B(tài)估計幾乎同步的測量的術(shù)語，因為短時間間隔（毫秒）的存在，從最初的測量到最終的測量一個緩慢變化的負荷/發(fā)電。圖3監(jiān)控測點在3總線網(wǎng)絡(luò)狀態(tài)估計計算的平滑的數(shù)據(jù)，檢測到壞的傳感器，并計算出電壓和相位角的最佳估計在總線的網(wǎng)絡(luò)，例如，網(wǎng)絡(luò)的“狀態(tài)”。計算出的狀態(tài)是一個加權(quán)最小二乘估計“最適合的”使用該等效傳輸線參數(shù)數(shù)據(jù)庫的值的測量，R+JX系列的標幺值阻抗元件–JY/2分流普納線的兩端。分析方法存在“與狀態(tài)估計相結(jié)合的快照估計線路參數(shù)。第一次這樣的狀態(tài)估計方法[2]開始后不久出現(xiàn)。許多貢獻了大約1990的[3，4]是典型的，新技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展[5]。最近的一個總結(jié)，參考[6]。圖4中的數(shù)據(jù)的“快照”是用來傳播的狀態(tài)估計[5]和最“適合”的在線查找相關(guān)殘差法估算圖3傳輸線參數(shù)。用這個方法的參數(shù)估計結(jié)果如圖5所示。圖4監(jiān)控測量圖3圖5傳輸線參數(shù)估計結(jié)果與圖4圖3網(wǎng)絡(luò)SCADA數(shù)據(jù)只有圖2的線路圖在3的網(wǎng)絡(luò)中可以淹沒殘余誤差，進一步檢測估計線BC和AB25%誤差線充電電