咨詢公司知識(shí)管理英文2

‘KnowledgeManagement’

andtheConsultingIndustryTheConsultantOnceuponatimetherewasashepherdtendinghissheepattheedgeofacountryroad.AbrandnewMustangscreechestoahaltnexttohim.Thedriver,ayoungmandressedinanArmanisuit,Cerruttishoes,Oakleyglasses,TAGwristwatchandaBhstiegetsoutandaskstheshepherd,‘IfIguesshowmanysheepyouhave,willyougivemeoneofthem?’Theshepherdlooksattheyoungman,thenlooksatthesprawlingfieldofsheepandsays,‘Okay.’Theyoungmanparksthecar,connectshisnotebookandwirelessmodem,entersaNASAsite,scansthegroundusinghisGPS,opensadatabaseand60Exceltablesfilledwithalgorithms,thenprintsa150pagereportonhishightechminiprinter.Hethenturnstotheshepherdandsays,‘Youhaveexactly1,586sheephere.’Theshepherdanswers:‘That’scorrect,youcanhaveyoursheep.’Theyoungmantakesoneoftheanimalsandputsitinthebackofhisvehicle.Theshepherdlooksathimandasks:‘Now,ifIguessyourprofession,willyoupaymebackinkind?’Theyoungmananswers:‘Sure.’Theshepherdsays,‘Youareaconsultant.’‘Exactly!Howdidyouknow?’askstheyoungman.‘Verysimple,’answerstheshepherd.‘First,youcameherewithoutbeingcalled.Second,youchargedmeafeetotellmesomethingIalreadyknew.Third,youdonotunderstandanythingaboutmybusiness...andI’dreallyliketohavemydogback.’Whatis‘consulting’?TheCollinsEnglishDictionaryrevealsthattoconsultistomakeoneselfavailabletogiveprofessionaladvice,especiallyatscheduledtimesandforafee.Theterm‘consult’originatesinthemedicalprofession.Thereaconsultantisaphysicianwhoisaskedtoconfirmadiagnosis;oritisaphysician(orsurgeon)whoholdsthehighestappointmentinaparticularbranchofmedicineorsurgeryinahospital.Theconsultantisthereforesomeone–mostlyaspecialist–whoisaskedtogiveexpertadviceorinformation.ThemanagementconsultantThemanagementconsultantisaspecialbreedofconsultant.Personificationoftheknowledgeeconomy;Anti-thesistoFord’sassembly-lineworker.Symbolisesthe‘future’ofwork:notdirty,notheavy-duty,notmanual,notmonotonous,notde-skilled,notde-humanized,notbadlypaid;butflexible,creative,international,demanding,cross-cultural,well-paid,technologicallyadvanced,fun.Theidoloftoday’sworkingworld;itisoneofthemain‘drivers’ofthebusinessofbusinesseducationAccenture,PricewaterhouseCoopers(PwC),CapGeminiErnst&Young,McKinsey&Co.,Bain&Co.,TheBostonConsultingGroupandMercer(tonamebutafew)arethearchetypalcompaniesoftoday’sglobal‘informational’capital,whichattractthe‘highestcalibre’graduates.InterConGermansubsidiaryofaglobalmanagementandtechnologyconsultingcompanyTheIKMprojectVirtualprojectteamITStrategyCAsOperationalProcessesCAsInformationManagementCAsPeopleCAsGMTs(Industries)Telecom&MediaConsumerGoodsChemicalsLifeSciencesFinancialServicesEnergyTransport/TourismAutomotive/EngineeringUtilitiesetc.USAFranceUKGermanyDisciplinesPoAsSupplierNetworksElectronicBusinessEuroTransformationKnowledge-ManagementERP(StandardSoftware)CustomerRelationshipManagementServiceOfferingsOrganisationalStructureofInterConProjectKnowledgeCaptureAtProject

Start

Before

Project

EndAccesstoKnowledgeFeedbackandRewardsupdatesKBaseupdatesKBasefinalizeknowledgecapturereport,copytoPKC,PM,GMT/Disc,CoE,CA,PoAKC atprojectend,handsover projectarchivetolocalInfoCentrereviewKCapturereportandtogetherwithstreamleads,identify‘BestinClass’GMTdocumentsKeyRolesGMTKCGMTKnowledgeChampionPMProjectManagerPKCProjectKnowledgeChampionGMTKSGMTKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeChampionALLStrategicDirectionKBaseMaintenanceCoE,CA,Disc.,GMTExpertTeamandKSDefineandcommunicatethestrategicknowledgemanagementobjectivesandsetexpectationsatalllevelse.g.atyearlyKMconferenceinSeptember,CapabilitiesCouncilsandotherleadershipmeetingsQuarterlymeetingwithGMT/Disc.tofilternonrelevantdocumentsout,identifygapsanddiscussexpectationstofillthegaps.UpdateCD-ROMcopiesofToolBoxesandKBases.Projectsaccessknowledgevia:theCOMPASS(intranetwhichprovidesworld-wideaccesstotheKBases),CoE,CA,Discipline,GMTExpertTeamsandKCs(whosemainroleistohelpdevelop,captureanddisseminateknowledge),andKnowledgeSpecialists(whoactasaglobalpointofcontactandanswerspecific,complexrequestsforinformationonacasebycasebasis,throughoutprojectduration).MakeKnowledgeManagementpartofthefeedbackandrewardloop:360oexpectationandfeedbackexchangeforknowledgecaptureRewardmostinnovativeand‘bestinclass’contributions.Internalknowledgemanagementinvolvesanumberofactorsatallstagesoftheprojectlifecyclereviewdocumentsandallocatetotherelevant(GMT,CoE,CA,Disc.)KBasesupdatesP&P

DatabaseContactsPMtoidentifyPKCandKSidentifiesPKCandaccountableKSsends“KCPack”andGMTKBaseCD-ROMcompletesP&PformandforwardstoKSfillsinKCapturereportandsendstoKSdefineandcommunicateknowledgecaptureapproachandsetconcretecaptureexpectationswithteamabstractandsanitizebestdocumentsandsendtoKSInvolvementofallprojectteammembersiscriticaltoachievingourobjectivesGMT,CoE,CAandDisciplinesKCandexpertsplayakeyroleinassessinginnovationsandbestinclasscontributions.InthecasethatthePMidentifiesaKSotherthantheGMTKS,pleaserefertoPanel16toseehowtheKCaptureprocesschanges.Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedAjointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteknowledgecapturesessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedCapturingknowledgefromprojectsinvolvesthefollowingprinciples...ProjectKnowledgeCaptureupdatesKBaseupdatesKBasefinalizeknowledgecapturereport,copytoPKC,PM,GMT/Disc,CoE,CA,PoAKC atprojectend,handsover projectarchivetolocalInfoCentrereviewKCapturereportandtogetherwithstreamleads,identify‘BestinClass’GMTdocumentsKey

RolesGMTKCGMTKnowledgeChampionPMProjectManagerPKCProjectKnowledgeChampionGMTKSGMTKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeChampionreviewdocumentsandallocatetotherelevant(GMT,CoE,CA,Disc.)KBasesupdatesP&P

DatabaseContactsPMtoidentifyPKCandKSidentifiesPKCandaccountableKSsends“KCPack”andGMTKBaseCD-ROMcompletesP&PformandforwardstoKSfillsinKCapturereportandsendstoKSdefineandcommunicateknowledgecaptureapproachandsetconcretecaptureexpectationswithteamabstractandsanitizebestdocumentsandsendtoKSInvolvementofallprojectteammembersiscriticaltoachievingourobjectivesGMT,CoE,CAandDisciplinesKCandexpertsplayakeyroleinassessinginnovationsandbestinclasscontributions.TheGMTKScontactsthePM,offersKnowledgeManagementcoachingTheProjectManager(PM)identifiestheProjectKnowledgeChampion(PKC)andtheKnowledgeSpecialist(KS)thatwillbeaccountableforcapturingtheprojectsknowledgeTheaccountableKSwillusuallybetheGMTKS.However,ifaprojectislargelyDiscipline/CA/CoEdriven(forexample,IMDiscipline),thentheappropriateDiscipline/CA/CoEKSshouldbecometheaccountableKnowledgeSpecialist(TheaboveprocessassumestheGMTKSisselected;PleaseseenextslideforDisciplineandA&Dexamples)IfthePMcannotidentifyaKS,theGMTKSisselectedautomaticallyGMTKSsends‘KnowledgeCapture’PackandGMTKBaseCD-ROMExchangeanddocumentationofKnowledgeCaptureexpectationsGMTKSandotherappropriateKS,PM,PKCandotherprojectmembersexchangeconcreteknowledgecaptureexpectationswhicharedocumentedintheKCapturereport(Pleaseseeappendixforatemplate)Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsettingsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedPKCsendsKCapturereporttoGMTKSwhoforwardsittootherKS(Discipline,CA,CoE)TheGMTKSensuresthatthePeople&ProjectSummaryissubmittedbythePKCTheGMTKSensuresthatthecasehistory,casestudyandprojectarchiveiscapturedfromtheprojectSelectionof‘BestinClass’documentsTheKnowledgeCapturereportshouldbereviewedAllprojectmembers(undertheleadershipofPKC)reviewallrelevantdocumentsandselectmostinnovativeandother‘BestinClass’GMTaswellasDisc./CA/CoEdocumentsGMT,Discipline,CAandCoEKnowledgeSpecialists,KnowledgeChampionsandotherexpertscanbeconsultedtoidentify‘BestinClass’documentsAone-dayKnowledgeCapturesessionwithallrelevantKSissuggestedforlargeprojects;ajointconferencecallshouldbeorganisedforKCapturefromsmallprojectsTheKCapturereportisupdatedbythePKCandsenttoGMTKSAllidentified‘BestinClass’documentsareabstracted(inEnglish)bytheprojectmembersandsubmittedtotheGMTKSwhoisforwardingrelevantdocumentstootherKnowledgeSpecialists(accordingtoKCapturereport)AllKSreviewthesubmitteddocumentsandupdatetheirKnowledgeDomainsaccordinglyTheKnowledgeCapturereportisfinalizedbyallinvolvedKS(underleadershipofGMTKS)andforwardedtothePKCaswellascopiedtothePMandallrelevantKnowledgeChampionsPrinciplesAtProject

StartBefore

Project

EndInthecasethatthePMidentifiesaKSotherthantheGMTKS,pleaserefertoPanel16toseehowtheKCaptureprocesschanges.Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedAjointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteknowledgecapturesessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedFilteringrelevantdocumentsensureshigherqualitycontentintheKnowledgeBaseRelevantprojectdocumentsarecollectedthroughouttheprojectAllprojectmembers(underconsultationwithappropriateKSand/orKC)determinewhetherdocumentshouldbesubmittedoridentifyanynextstepsNoNoIncludedocumentin‘BestinClass’documentpackandsubmittoGMTKSYesNoYesYesAllprojectmembers(undertheleadershipofPKC)reviewallrelevantdocumentsNoYesHow

dowevaluetheimportanceofthedocfortheCA,CoE,GMT,PoAorDisc.?Isdocumentanadditionorbuildtoanexistingdocumentortechnology?Isdocument

anewapplicationof

anexistingtoolortechnology?InnovativeKeyBasicProjectMembersmustselectthe‘BestinClass’projectdocumentsandabstractthem.Onedayon-siteknowledgecapturesessiontogetherwithKnowledgeSpecialistsissuggestedforlargeprojects.ThisisthedetailedworkplanforKnowledgeCapturing0. Setup

0.1 Technicalinfrastructure

-Getorganizedquickly!Chosetheeasiestwaytotransferfilestoyourmachine.Usedisksifnecessary.1. DataMining

1.1 DataTransfer

-copyallfilesintodirectoryA,copythemone-by-onetodirectoryBandrenameaccordingtostandards

1.2 KeepTrackoffiles

-useExcel-sheettoidentifyandcategorizeeveryfile.BeveryexactwiththisXLS-sheet!2. Structuring

2.1 Projectplan

-havetheprojectleadorworkstreamleadsmakeadraftoruseapresentationonthisissue,definetopics

-getthemtoidentifyimportantfilesandassignthemtotopics,markfileswithouttopicforlateruse 2.2 HMTL-structure

-usetemplatesasmuchasyoucan,keeptostandards,involveleadswithdesign3. Prototyping

3.1 Graphics

-convertppt-filestojpg’s,mapthem,definetopicHTML-filenames -createthetopic-HTMLfiles 3.2 HTML-templates

-addclientlogos,changecolors,butstickwiththestandards!4. Encoding 4.1 HTML-files -checkXLS-sheetforgaps,haveleadsfilltheminorsetmarks -usemail-mergefeaturefromWord,viewfileandsaveeachfilewithcorrectfilename(tedious,butcritical)5. Refining 5.1 AbstractsandKeywords

-haveauthorswriteupsomekeywordswherenecessary,addpurposeinformationwhenapropriate 5.2 Test,test,testthestructure,linksandassets6. Production&Presentation

KnowledgeCaptureonProjectXXXWorkstreamAreaof

KnowledgeCaptureWhatAspects

areNovel&WhyRelevantforwhichunitProposedCapture

Date

Project“A”KS“A”TobefilledoutbyProjectteamTobefilledoutbyKSteamActualCapture

DateKBases/HomepagesKnowledgeDomainsofGMTs,Disciplines/CAsandCoEswillhavethefollowingbasicstructureIntroductions,PointsofView,TrainingMaterial,CaseStudies,ExternalReadingsBDBusinessDevelopmentA&DAnalysis&DesignRDResultsDeliveryIndustryissuesConferencesandseminarpresentationsMarketingmaterialCompetitorintelligenceClientreferencesWhatwefindProposalexamplesPeopleandfacultyA&D/impactcasestudiesProjectdesignProgrammanagementandmonitoringBenefitscaseChecklistsTools/methodologiesBestpracticesProgrammanagementandmonitoringH2guideandtoolsBenefitstracking01ReadmefirstProcessofKnowledgecaptureContactsandExpertsCurrentLiveprojectportfolio01PointofViews:InterCon’’spointofviewonagivenindustryormethodology,i.e.

someperspectiveisbroughttothedocumentratherthanarecitationoffacts/stepsOften,butnotalways,ashortdocument(15-20pages)includes““whatwefinds”02DetailedIndustryOverviews:DetailedoverviewofaspecificindustrySamecontentasPointofView,butmoredetailandmoreemphasisonanalysisIn-depthdescriptionofindustries(majorplayers,industrystructure,criticalsuccessfactors)03MarketingSupportMaterials:Qualitymaterialtosharewithclientsduringbusinessdevelopmentandotherclientcommunicationactivities,including:Capabilitybrochures/statementsConferencepresentationsHorseblankets/whitepapersProposals/proposallettersRedissues(sellingissuesforagivenclient/industry)RFP(RequestforProposal;asInterConusesthetermtypicallyadetailedresponsetoaclient’sRequestforProposalonagivenproject)Whatwefinds(commonissuesinagivenindustryorfunctionwithinanindustry)04TrainingModules:Training-focuseddocumentstoguideInterConandclientteammembersinapplyingmethodologyorinunderstandinganindustryincluding:Competencyoverview/trainingobjectivesDetailedmethodologyapproach;detailsimplementationstepsCriticalsuccessfactorsIssues/challenges,lessonslearnedTools/diagnosticsrequired05KeyTools&Diagnostics(Industryspecific):Foreachdiagnostic/toolrelevanttomethodologyHowtoapply/usetool,expectedresults,detailedstepsSamplepanelsetforpresentingtoclient/steeringcommitteeActualdiagnostictoolofsurvey,spreadsheets,interviews,etc..,andsourcesforvendortoolsAnyscoringspreadsheetsorresourceswhocanassist06IndustryExamples/Approaches:Documentsdevelopingduringthecourseofaproject,outlininghowInterConplanstoconductworkandwhatdeliverableswillresultorthefinaldeliverablesthemselves.Includes:AsIs/interviewfindingsA&DbusinesscasesChartersIssues/challenges,lessonslearnedFinalreports/deliverablesImplementationplansProjectdesigns/approachesRDexecutiveupdatesStrategicrecommendationsValuechainsWorkshopitems07CaseStudiesDocumentsdetailingwhatworkInterConconductedonbehalfofaclientincludingpointssuchasthebackgroundoftheproject,whatwefound,whatwedidandwhatwearelookingforwardto.08BenchmarkingStudies/Approaches:Benchmarkingdocumentsmaycontainmetrics(specificfigures,e.g.23widgetsperfortnight),processes(e.g.ACMEutilisesconcurrentengineeringtogetgadgetstomarketfasterandwithfewerdefects),orboth.09CompetitorProfiles/Approaches:DocumentationreferencinghowcompetitorsapplymethodologyOther‘names'formethodologyIndustryexperienceLessonslearned10ExternalReadingList:AbstractsofimportantbooksandarticlesrelevanttomethodologyIncludeaccuratesourceforeach(title,author,date,journaltitleandpagenumbersifappropriate)ContentforIndustryHomepagesH2getfromanunstructuredheapofprojectfiles

toafullyoperationalIntranetstructurein5daysTaskTimetableDescriptionDeliverables1.DataMining2.Structuring0.Setup3.Prototyping4.Encoding5.Refining6.ProductionConnecttolocalsystemsCollectallfilesfrom

projectDefineprojectplan,assignfilestotopicsDesignInternetpagesandlogicalstructureCreateHTML-files,

createlinksImproveabstracts,

reviewkeywordsProducefinalized

Version,PresentationMonTueWedThuFriTechnicalinfrastructureinplaceAllfilesrenamedandcatalogized,XLS-sheetKeyareasdefined,

XLS-sheetupdatedHTML-structureandlinksdefinedHTML-filescreatedand

linkedintostructureAllabstractsfinalizedwithkeywordsFinishedIntranetKnowledgeBaseTask0-SetupRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedNeverunderestimatethetimeittakestosetupasystemina

foreignenvironment!-fullyequippedhardware-completesetofsoftware-informationoninfrastructure-disks,laplink-cable,modem-telephoneandmodemline-roomtowork-accesstosystems-User-ID,password-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccesstosharedresources-setupcomputer,checkmodemconnection-estimatebestdatatransfermethod-checkdatatransferandcompatibility-getinfoonwhatmaterialtoobtain-checkavailabilityofsharedresources-solutionofmajorITobstacles-independentlyoperationalsystem-hard-/softwarechecks-scopeofdatatransferdefinedTask1-DataMiningRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedSomefilesexistinolderversion.Makesureyouhavethenewestone!Checkinalldisksandsourcesavailable.-connectiontonetworkOR-laplinkconnection-otherdatamedia-accesstosystems-User-ID,password-listofrequiredfiles-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccesstosharedresources-transferdata-renamefilesaccordingtostandards-createXLS-sheetwithfileinformation-allfilescopiedandcategorized-XLS-sheetupdatedandcompleteTask2-StructuringRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedAgooddesignoftheprojectplanimprovesthecategorizingofthefiles.-agreementonprojectscope-supportfromprojectleads-draftofprojectplan-definedtopicareas-ideasondesign-projectleadnotavailable-toomanyfilesundefined-designprojectplangraphics-defineHTML-structure-designHTML-templatepages(abstracts)-designofprojectplangraphics-designofHTML-structure-designofHTMLs-updatedXLS-sheetTask3-PrototypingRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedCreatinggraphicsforinternetpagestakestime.Don’’ttrytogetperfectimages.-OKforprojectplandesign-workstreamleads-projectsleads-complexitytoohigh-integrationcannotbevisualized-createprojectplangraphics-createHTML-mapandlinks-createHTML-template-HTML-structureoperational-projectplanmapcomplete-HTML-templatesfinalizedTask4-EncodingRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedKeepatrackeronmissingorfaultylinks.Alsowatchoutfordoublereferencesandchangesintargetlinks.-structureanddesignMUSTbereadyandapproved-XLS-sheetcomplete-HTML-templatesapproved-OKfordesignandstructure-gapsinXLS-sheetmightbeforgotten-useWordmail-mergefeaturetocreateallHTML-abstracts-teststructureandlinks-allHTMLsandlinkscreated-programmingcompletedTask5-RefiningRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedNeverunderestimatethetimeittakestosetupasystemina

foreignenvironment!-projectteamshouldcheckthequalityandstructure-buildsfromproject-testruns-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccesstosharedresources-identifyweakabstractsandenhancequality-haveteammemberstestthesystem-wrapupmissingends-solutionofmajorITobstacles-independentlyoperationalsystem-hard-/softwarechecks-scopeofdatatransferdefinedTask6-ProductionRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedInordertodeliveraCD-ROM,youhavetokeeptodeadlines.Don’’toverengineertheabstracts!-allactivitiesarounddesigningandencodingarefinishedandapproved-alllinksarechecked,allfilesareaccessible-approvalofwork-fileshavebeenupdated-updateXLS-sheettofinalizedversion-removetemplateanddesignfiles-checkforviruses-burncompletesetonCD-ROM-presentationforprojectteam-CD-ROMwithcontentsKnowledgeandITSwanetal.(1999)havefoundinareviewoftheknowledgemanagementliteraturethatin1998nearly70percentofknowledgemanagementrelatedarticlesappearedininformationsystemsandinformationtechnologyliteratures.“Knowledgemanagementismuchmorethantechnology,but‘‘techknowledgy’isclearlyapartofknowledgemanagement”(DavenportandPrusak,1998:123).“Themereexistenceofknowledgesomewhereintheorganizationisoflittlebenefit;itbecomesavaluablecorporateassetonlyifitisaccessible,anditsvalueincreaseswiththelevelofaccessibility””(ibid.:18)Expertsystems,artificialintelligence,desktopvideoconferencing,hypertextsystemssuchasintranetsandknowledgemaps.Thepurposeofharnessingknowledgeis,ofcourse,clear:toturnknowledgeintoavaluablecorporateasset,whichwillhelptoincreasethecompetitiveadvantageofcompanies.KnowledgeandIntellectualCapital“Theformationofthediscourseonintellectualcapitalispredicatedupontheassumptionthatthetraditionaldouble-entrybookkeepingsystemisnotabletoreflectemergingrealities.Itisaninadequatetoolformeasuringthevalueofcorporationswhosevalue,itisclaimed,liesmainlyintheirintangiblecomponents.”(YakhlefandSalzer-M?rling,2000:20)Today,itisarguedthatcompanyassetsnotonlyincludematerialartefacts,propertiesandfinancialassets,butalsoemployees’’andorganisationalknowledges,whichexplicitlyresideinpeople’sheadsandaretacitlyembodied.Someknowledgemanagementwritershavethereforecalledforthedevelopmentofnewsystems,thatwouldenableamoreadequatevaluationofcompanies’’assets,andprovidetoolsforexploitingexistingtacitandexplicitknowledgebasesmoreeffectively(see,forexample,Brooking,1996;EdvinssonandMalone,1998;Lynn,1998;NahaphietandGhoshal,1998;Roosetal.,1998;Stewart,1998;Zeleny,1989).TacitKnowledgeKnowsomething‘intheory’and‘practicalcommonsense’(Spender,1996).Inmanyworldlanguagesthisdistinctioncanbemademoreexplicit,e.g.wissenandkennen,savoirandconna?tre.‘know-what’and‘‘know-how’.‘knowingaboutsomething’’and‘knowingthroughdirectexperience’’(King,1964)or‘knowledgeabout’and‘‘knowledgeofacquaintance’(James,1950).Whileexperienceisdirectlyrelatedto‘‘know-how’,‘‘know-what’istheresultof““systematicthoughtthateliminatesthesubjectiveandcontextualcontingenciesofexperience”(Spender,1996:49).Blackler(1995):embrained,embodied,encultured,embeddedandencoded.Spender(1996):conscious(explicitindividualknowledge),objectified(explicitorganisationalknowledge),automatic(preconsciousindividualknowledge)andcollective(practical,context-dependentorganisationalknowledge).“[T]hequintessentialknowledge-creationprocesstakesplacewhentacitknowledgeisconvertedintoexplicitknowledge.Inotherwords,ourhunches,perceptions,mentalmodels,beliefs,andexperiencesareconvertedtosomethingthatcanbecommunicatedandtransmittedinformalandsystematiclanguage.”(NonakaandTakeuchi:1995:230-231,italicsadded)TheKnowledgeCommodity“Thecommodityreflectsthesocialcharacteristicsofmen’sownlabourasobjectivecharacteristicsoftheproductsoflabourthemselves……Itisnothingbutthedefinitesocialrelationbetweenmenthemselveswhichassumeshere,forthem,thefantasticformofarelationbetweenthings.”(Marx,1976:164-165)CommodityFetishism“Themysteriouscharacterofthecommodity-formconsiststhereforesimplyinthefactthatthecommodityreflectsthesocialcharacteristicsofmen’sownlabourasobjectivecharacteristicsoftheproductsoflabourthemselves,asthesocio-naturalpropertiesofthesethings.Henceitalsoreflectsthesocialrelationoftheproducerstothesumtotaloflabourasasocialrelationbetweenobjects,arelationwhichexistsapartfromandoutsidetheproducers.Throughthissubstitution,theproductsoflabourbecomecommodities,sensuousthingswhichareatthesametimesupra-sensibleorsocial.Inthesameway,theimpressionmadebyathingontheopticnerveisperceivednotasasubjectiveexcitationofthatnervebutastheobjectiveformofathingoutsidetheeye.Intheactofseeing,ofcourse,lightisreallytransmittedfromonething,theexternalobject,toanotherthing,theeye.Itisaphysicalrelationbetweenphysicalthings.Asagainstthis,thecommodity-form,andthevalue-relationoftheproductsoflabourwithinwhichitappears,haveabsolutelynoconnectionwiththephysicalnatureofthecommodityandthematerial[dinglich]relationsarisingoutofthis.Itisnothingbutthedefinitesocialrelationbetweenmenthemselveswhichassumeshere,forthem,thefantasticformofarelationbetweenthings.Inorder,therefore,tofindananalogywemusttakeflightintothemistyrealmofreligion.Theretheproductsofthehumanbrainappearasautonomousfiguresendowedwithalifeoftheirown,whichenterintorelationsbothwitheachotherandwiththehumanrace.Soitisintheworldofcommoditieswiththeproductsofmen’shands.Icallthisthefetishismwhichattachesitselftotheproductsoflabourassoonastheyareproducedascommodities,andisthereforeinseparablefromtheproductionofcommodities.””(Marx,1976:165)KnowledgeManagementandManagementKnowledgeJacksonandCarterwrite:““Managementknowledge…constitutesarelativelyhomogeneouscanonthatclaimstobeabletoimproveorganizationalefficiency(and,thereby,profit,thoughthelinkisrarelydemonstrable),inparticularthroughtheadoptionofspecifictechniquesfortheuseoflabour.Thegeneralobjectiveofthesetechniquesistoenableunitsoflabourtobemoreproductive––thatis,toworkharder””(1998:151)ForJacksonandCarter,managementknowledgeisthus““anideologicallybasedcanon,biasedinfavourofanessentiallycapitalistinterest.Itfunctionsaspartofthetechno-mediatichegemonythatsustainsthisdominantdiscourse””(1998:152).ReferencesSwanetal.(1999)‘‘Knowledgemanagementandinnovation:networksandnetworking’’,JournalofKnowledgeManagement,3(4):262-275.Davenport,ThomasH.andLaurencePrusak(1998)WorkingKnowledge:HowOrganizationsManageWhatTheyKnow.Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.Yakhlef,AliandMiriamSalzer-Morling(2000)‘‘IntellectualCapital:ManagingbyNumbers’’,inCraigPrichard,RichardHull,MikeChumerandHughWillmott(eds.)Man