英語語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論

文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持Thefirstpragmatictheory--SpeechActTheory言語行為理論OriginatedfromtheOxfordphilosopherJohnAustin.ThetheorywasdiscussedinhisbookHowtoDoThingswithWordspublishedposthumously(afterdeath)in1962basedonhislecturespreviouslydelivered.(Q134.Whatisaperformative?)(Q135.Whatisaconstative?p187Performativesvs.constatives—Thebackgroundoftheclassification:LogicalPositivism(邏輯實證主義);truthvalue;constatives;meaning,meaningless,anduseless.Austin'sclassificationoftwotypesofsentencTseformerdoesnotdescribethingsormakestatement,andcannotbetestedtrueorfalse.Theutteringofthesesentencesisdoinganaction.Itisinthissensethatitassumesitsvalueofexistence.Theverbusedthereiniscalledperformativeverb.Egs.1.Iwarnyounottodothat.Ideclaretheconferenceopen.Ipromisetofinishthetaskintime.*Constativesaresentencesthatdescribethingsormakestatementandcanbetestedtrueorfalse,andtheutteringofthemisnotdoinganaction.(Q136.WhatisSAT)*SpeechActTheoryisatheoryabouthowwecanusewords/languagetodothings.(Q137.WhatarethefelicityconditionssuggestedbyAustin?(Q138.Whatisatypicalperformative?p188)c.FelicityconditionsbyAustin:A.(i)theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,and(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.Veryoften,(i)therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,and(ii)mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.*Typicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoice,andperformativeverbs.(Q139.Whatarethethreesensesofdoinginsayingsomething?3)Illocutionaryact(言外行為)—Thisisthediscussionofinwhatsensetosaysthistodosth”.ItisdiscussedinthelatterpartofHowtoDoThingswithWordsTherearethreesensesinwhichsayingsomethingmeansdoingsomething:Thefirstsensetheproductionofsound,word,orsentenceinsayingsomething.TheactthusperformedisaLocutionaryAct.Eg.insayingGoodmorning!”，theutteringofitisaLocutionaryAct.Thesecondsensethemakingclearofthepurposeinproducingsomeunitsoflanguage.Eg.Goodmorning!”hastheforceofagreeting.TheactthusperformedisanIllocutionaryAct/Force.Thethirdsensetheconsequentialeffectsuponthehearer.Eg.Goodmorning"，whensaidbythespeaker,willhavesomeeffectonthehearer,the33文檔來源為：從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.effectoffriendliness,perhaps.Theactinthissenseispaerlocutionaryact.Thesecondpragmatictheory—ThetheoryofConversationalImplicature會話含義理論ItwasproposedbyanotherOxfordphilosopherHerbertPaulGriceinthelectureshedeliveredbeforeandin1967andpublishedin1975underthetitleof“LogicandConversation”.Thebackground:Peopleareoftenindirectinconversation,yet,thereisusuallynodifficultyinunderstandingwhattheymean.Theremustbesomeregularityinconversationthatgovernsourcorrectinterpretation.Weseemtofollowsomeprinciplebothinconversingandininterpretingconversation.(Q140.WhatisCP?)(Q141.WhatarethefourmaximsofCP?p191).Thecooperativeprinciple(CP)—“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged”.Therearefourmaximstoobserveunderthisprinciple:MaximsofQuantity,Quality,Relation,andManner.Quantity:1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Quality:Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Relation:Berelevant.Manner:Beperspicuous(清晰)Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.(Q142.Whatisthereasonforviolatingthemaxims?Giveanexampleforeachviolation.)Violationofthemaxims—ThisiswhatthesecondhalfofGrice’“sLogicandConversationd”iscussed.ItwasfoundbyGricethatinmanycasespeopledonotobservethefourmaximsandyouwouldhearliesorsomedeeplyimpliedmeanings.ViolationofQuantity:Eg.1.Wariswar.A:IshegoodatEnglish?B:Heisattentiveinclass.Heoftenfinisheshisworkintime.Andheusuallywritesneatly.…A:WhereisJohn?B:Somewhereonthecampus.ViolationofQuality:Eg.1.Johnismadeofstone.abagoftroubles34文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.ViolationofRelation:Eg.A:Johnisabrokenmachine.B:Howdoyouthinkofmynewglasses?ViolationofManner:Eg.A:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Okay,butIvetoI-C-EC-R-E-A-M.Howismeaningimplicatedandhowisimplicatureworkedout?ObservingtheCPwhileunderlyinglyviolatethemaxims(Q143.Whatarethecharacteristicsofimplicature?p195).(Q144.Whatisnon-detachability?)ThecharacteristicsofimplicatureCalculability:Implicaturesarecalculable.Theycanbeworkedoutonthebasisofsomepreviousinformationandonthebasisofcooperativenatureofconversation.Cancellability(alsoknownasdefeasibility):Implicaturescanbecancelledbyadditionalclausesorsimplybythesituationalcontext.Non-detachability:Aconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid.Or,animplicaturewillnotbedetached,separatedfromtheutterancecompletely.Eg.Johnhasabigbrain.(Heisanidiot.)Non-conventionality:Implicatureisindeterminate.Itvarieswiththecontext.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed2)Preview8.3(p198-209)Lecture14Pragmatics(2)--Post-GriceandevelopmentsThebackgroundIthasbeenfoundthatthereissomeinconsistencyandredundancywiththeCPandthemaxims.Somelinguistshavesoughttoboildownthemaximstoareducedsetofprinciples.(Q145.Whatistheprincipleofrelevance?p198).RelevancetheoryItwasproposedbySperberandWilsonanddiscussedintheirbookRelevance:CommunicationandCognitionin1986.ItwasarguedthatallGriceanmaxims,includingtheCPitself,shouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleofrelevance,whichcanbedefinedas:“Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.”Foraspeaker,communicationshouldbeseenasanactofmakingclearone’sintentiontoexpresssomething—theostensiveact.Acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensiveinferential.Forahearer,communicationshouldbepresumedasoptimallyrelevantinthesense:(a).thesetofassumptions{I}whichthecommunicatorintendstomakemanifesttotheaddresseeisrelevantenoughtomakeitworththeaddressee’swhiletoprocesstheostensivestimulus;(b).theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonethecommunicatorcouldhaveusedtocommunicate{I}.ThreedefinitionsofrelevanceinSperberandWilson(1986):(a).relevancetoacontext;(b).relevancetoanindividual;(c).relevancetothecognitiveenvironmentofthehearer/audience.“Everyutterancecomeswithapresumptionofthebestbalanceofeffortagainsteffect”.(Q146.WhataretheQ-andR-principles?p202).TheQ-andR-principlesItwasproposedbyLaurenceHornin1984andelaboratedin1988.TheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGrice--Q’suantity,andtheR-principletheRelationmaxim.It’sareductionofGrice’sfourmaximstotwoprinciples,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensiveandcomplicatedindescription:TheQ-principle(hearer-based):Makeyourcontributionsufficient(cf.quantity1)Sayasmuchasyoucan.TheR-principle(speaker-based):Makeyourcontributionnecessary(cf.Relation,Quantity2,Manner)Saynomorethanyoumust.Eg1.Someofmyfriendsarelinguists.Notall…(ThisishowtheQ-pworks)Canyoupassthesalt?Askingyoutodo…(ThisishowtheR-pworks)(Q147.What’sthedifferencebetweenQ-basedandR-basedimplicatures?p202-203.)TheQ-basedimplicaturescanbereadilycancelledbymetalinguisticnegationwhiletheR-basedonescannot:Eg1.Hedidn'teatthreecarrots.-*Q-implies:Heatelessthanthree.*R-implieswithdeep-levelnegation:Heatefourorallofthem.2.Itisn'tpossibleshellwin.一*Q-implies:Shewillnotwin.*R-implies:It’scertainshewill.(Q148.What’stherelationbetweenLevinson’s3principlesandGrice’s4maxims?p206.)TheQ-,I-andM-principlesTheyaresuggestedbyStephenLevinsoninhispaper(1987)“PragmaticsandtheGrammarofAnaphor:APartialPragmaticReductionofBindingandControlPhenomena”I.nessence,theprinciplesarere-interpretationofGrice’tswomaxims--QuantityandManner.LevinsondoesnotagreewithbothSperber&Wilson’sandHorn’saccountsto36文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.subsumethesecondmaximofQuantityunderaprincipleofrelevanceorrelation.Inhisview,themaximsofQuantityhavetodowiththequantityofinformation,thusintroducingInformationintohismodel.TheQ-pisimprovementoftheGriceanfirstmaximofQuantity;theI-pisthereinterpretationoftheGriceansecondmaximofQuantity.Levinson’sdescriptionisfurthercomplicatedcomparedtoHorn’s.(Omitted)Eg1.Somestudentshavecome.(HowQ-p-aworks)Notallstudentshavecome.IthinkJohnhasgone.(HowQ-p-bworks)Johnmayormaynothavegone.HarryandSueboughtapiano.(HowI-pworks--minimizationinencoding)Theyboughtittogether,notoneeach.(enrichmentincorollary)Johnlikeshimself.(HowM-pworks)Johnlikeshim.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed2)Handinnexttime:SummarizetheGriceanandPost-Griceanstudiesonprinciplesandmaxims.Lecture15LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeachingInthislecture,weshalldiscusstherelationbetweenlinguisticsandlanguageteaching.Fromthestudy,thestudentswillknowthestudiesandpracticesinappliedlinguistics,includingsyllabusdesign,howtoapplylinguistictheorytoteaching,andhowtoevaluateteaching.0.CollectthehomeworkandcheckthequestionsdiscussedlasttimePre-activity:Islinguisticsrelatedtoforeignlanguageteaching?Inwhatsense?(Q149.Whatistherelationbetweenlinguistics,appliedlinguistics,andlanguageteaching?)(Q150.Whatisappliedlinguistics?)TherelationLanguageteachingispartofappliedlinguisticsandappliedlinguisticsispartorabranchoflinguistics.Thebridgeoverthegapbetweenthetheoriesoflinguisticsandthepracticeofforeignlanguageteachingisappliedlinguistics,whichservesasamediatingareathatinterpretstheresultsoflinguistictheoriesandmakesthemuser-friendlytolanguageteachersandlearners.Appliedlinguisticsisconductivetoforeignlanguageteachingintwomajoraspects:Itextendstheoreticallinguisticsinthedirectionoflanguagelearningandteaching.Itstatestheinsightsandimplicationsthatlinguistictheorieshaveonlanguage文檔來源為文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持文檔來源為文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持teachingmethodology.Linguisticviewsappliedinlanguagelearning(Q151.WhatisKrashen’sInputHypothesis?p270)(Q152.WhatisPremodifiedInputandInteractivelyModifiedInput?)Krashen’sInputHypothesis(1985):learnersacquirelanguageasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem.*PremodifiedInputismaterialthatisfinelytunedinadvancetothelearne’rscurrentlevel,whereasInteractivelyModifiedInputismaterial(usuallyspokendiscourse)thatismodifiedwhentheteacherandthelearnersinteract.(Q153.Whatisconstructivistviewoflanguage?p271)(Q154.WhatisInterlanguage?p271-272)Aconstructivistviewoflanguagearguesthatlanguageissociallyconstructed.Learnerslearnlanguagebycooperating,negotiatingandperformingallkindsoftasks.Inotherwords,theyconstructlanguageincertainsocialandculturalcontexts.*Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.Itisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearne’rsnativelanguage.Itisadynamiclanguagesystemconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenativelevel.Linguisticviewsappliedinlanguageteaching(Q155.WhatisCommunicativeCompetence?p273).Thediscourse-basedviewoflanguageteachingaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,whichissimilartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.*Communicativecompetencereferstowhatalearnerknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.Itincludesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,ofrulesofspeaking,ofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andofhowtouselanguageappropriately.(Q156.HowdostudentslearnalanguageinaCLTorTBLTclassroom)?*TheCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)andTask-basedLanguageTeaching(TBLT)arewell-knownforencouraginglearningalanguagebyaccomplishingactionsorperformingtasks.(Q157.Whatisacurriculum?Asyllabus?)LinguisticviewsinsyllabusdesignNunan(1988:3)suggeststhatacurriculumisconcernedwithmakinggeneralstatementsaboutlanguagelearning,learningpurpose,andexperience,andtherelationshipbetweenteachersandlearners,whereassyllabusismorelocalizedandisbasedontheaccountsandrecordsofwhatactuallyhappensattheclassroomlevelasteachersandstudentsapplyacurriculumtotheirsituationAsyllabusistheplanningofacourseofinstruction,adescriptionofthecoursecontent,teachingproceduresandlearningprocess.(Q158.Whatisstructuralsyllabus?p279)38文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.(Q159.Whatissituationalsyllabus?)TypesofsyllabusStructuralsyllabus:Influencedbystructuralistlinguistics,thisisagrammarorientedsyllabusbasedonaselectionoflanguageitemsandstructures.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatlanguageisasystemofasetofgrammaticalrules;learningalanguagemeanslearningtheserulesandapplyingthemtopracticaluse.Situationalsyllabus:Theaimisspecifyingthesituationsinwhichthetargetlanguageisused.Theselectionandorganizationoflanguageitemsarebasedonsituations.Grammarformsandsentencepatternsareintroducedandpractisedbybeingkinttedindialoguesfordifferentsituations.(Q160.Whatiscommunicativesyllabus?)(Q161.Whatistask-basedsyllabus)?(Q162.Whatarethecomponentsofasyllabus)?Communicativesyllabus:Itincludes(1)fullycommunicativesyllabus;and(2)communicativegrammaticalapproach.Itaimsatthelearner’scommunicativecompetence,teachesthelanguageneededtoexpressandunderstanddifferentkindsoffunctions,andemphasizestheprocessofcommunication.Task-basedsyllabus:Itismoreconcernedwiththeclassroomprocesseswhichstimulatelearningthanwiththelanguageknowledgeorskillsthatstudentsaresupposedtomaster.Itconsistsofalistoftasksandactivitiesthatthelearnerswillengageinwhilelearningthetargetlanguageinclass.Componentsofasyllabus:Thepossiblecomponentsare—Aims/Goals;Objectives/Targets/Requirements;Learningstrategies,thinkingskills,interpersonalskills,etc;Implementation;andAssessment/Evaluation.AnalysesinLanguageTeaching&LearningThebackgroundofthediscussionThestructuralistview:dominantinthefieldofappliedlinguisticsuntiltheendof1960;followthebehaviouristicviewthattolearnistochangeoldhabitsandbuildnewhabits;errorsoccurbecausethefeaturesofthesecondlanguagedifferfromthoseofthenativelanguageandthelearnertendstocarryoverfeaturesofthenativelanguageintothesecondlanguage;failtochangeoldhabitssoastoacquirenewhabitsofthesecondlanguage.Post-structuralistviewoferrorsinlanguagelearning:withthedevelopmentofTransformational-Generativegrammarandotherlinguistictheories,changesofattitudeshavetakenplace;errorsareregardedasevidenceofthelearningprocess;bymakinghypothesisaboutthetargetlanguage,thelearnerarrivesataparticularinter-language,thenhemodifiershishypothesisandgoestowardsthetargetlanguage.Obviously,errorsareinevitableatthestageofinter-language.(Q163.WhatisContrastiveAnalysis?)(Q164.WhatisErrorAnalysis?p289.)39文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.文檔來源為文檔來源為:從網(wǎng)絡(luò)收集整理.word版本可編輯.歡迎下載支持文檔來源為文