微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)英文課件：ch16 General Equilibrium and Economic Efficiency

1、CHAPTER 16 OUTLINE16.1General Equilibrium Analysis16.2Efficiency in Exchange16.3Equity and Efficiency16.4Efficiency in Production16.5The Gains from Free Trade16.6An OverviewThe Efficiency of Competitive Markets16.7Why Markets FailGENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1partial equilibrium analysis Determina

2、tion of equilibrium prices and quantities in a market independent of effects from other markets.general equilibrium analysis Simultaneous determination of the prices and quantities in all relevant markets, taking feedback effects into account.GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1When markets are interdep

3、endent, the prices of all products must be simultaneously determined. Here a tax on movie tickets shifts the supply of movies upward from SM to S*M, as shown in (a). The higher price of movie tickets ($6.35 rather than $6.00) initially shifts the demand for DVDs upward (from DV to DV ), causing the

4、price of DVDs to rise (from $3.00 to $3.50), as shown in (b).Two Interdependent Markets: (a) Movie Tickets and (b) DVD RentalsFigure 16.1Two Interdependent MarketsMoving to General EquilibriumGENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1The higher video price feeds back into the movie ticket market, causing dema

5、nd to shift from DM to DM and the price of movies to increase from $6.35 to $6.75. This continues until a general equilibrium is reached, as shown at the intersection of D*M and S*M in (a), with a movie ticket of $6.82, and the intersection of D*V and SV in (b), with a DVD price of $3.58.Two Interde

6、pendent Markets: (a) Movie Tickets and (b) DVD RentalsFigure 16.1 (continued)Two Interdependent MarketsMoving to General EquilibriumGENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1Reaching General EquilibriumTo find the general equilibrium prices (and quantities) in practice, we must simultaneously find two prices

7、that equate quantity demanded and quantity supplied in all related markets. For our two markets, we need to find the solution to four equations.If the goods in question are complements, a partial equilibrium analysis will overstate the impact of a tax.The world ethanol market is dominated by Brazil

8、andthe United States, which accounted for over 90 percent of world production in 2005.In 2007, about 40 percent of all Brazilian automobile fuel was ethanol, a response to the skyrocketing growth in the demand for flex-fuel cars.The Energy Policy Act of 2005 required that U.S. fuel production includ

9、e a minimum amount of renewable fuel each yeara stipulation which essentially mandated a baseline level of ethanol production.The U.S. regulation of its own ethanol market can significantly affect Brazils market. This global interdependence was made evident by the Energy Security Act of 1979, by whi

10、ch the U.S. offered a tax credit of $0.51 per gallon of ethanol.To prevent foreign ethanol producers from reaping the benefits of this tax credit, the U.S. government imposed a $0.54 per gallon tax on imported ethanol.While this policy has benefited corn producers, it is not in the interests of U.S.

11、 ethanol consumers. It is estimated that whereas Brazil can export ethanol for less than $0.90 per gallon, it costs $1.10 to produce a gallon from Iowa corn.GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS16.1If U.S. tariffs on ethanol produced abroad were to be removed, Brazil would exp

12、ort much more ethanol to the United States, displacing much of the more expensive corn-based ethanol produced domestically. As a result, the price of ethanol in the U.S. would fall, benefiting U.S. consumers.Removing the Ethanol Tariff on Brazilian ExportsFigure 16.2EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2exchang

13、e economy Market in which two or more consumers trade two goods among themselves.efficient (or Pareto efficient) allocation Simultaneous determination of the prices and quantities in all relevant markets, taking feedback effects into account.EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2The Advantages of TradeThe Edgew

14、orth Box DiagramEdgeworth box Diagram showing all possible allocations of either two goods between two people or of two inputs between two production processes.EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2The Edgeworth Box DiagramEach point in the Edgeworth box simultaneously represents Jamess and Karens market basket

15、s of food and clothing. At A, for example, James has 7 units of food and 1 unit of clothing, and Karen 3 units of food and 5 units of clothing.Exchange in an Edgeworth BoxFigure 16.3EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2Efficient AllocationsThe Edgeworth box illustrates the possibilities for both consumers to i

16、ncrease their satisfaction by trading goods. If A gives the initial allocation of resources, the shaded area describes all mutually beneficial trades.Efficiency in ExchangeFigure 16.4EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2The Contract CurveThe contract curve contains all allocations for which consumers indiffere

17、nce curves are tangent. Every point on the curve is efficient because one person cannot be made better off without making the other person worse off.The Contract CurveFigure 16.5contract curve Curve showing all efficient allocations of goods between two consumers, or of two inputs between two produc

18、tion functions.EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2Consumer Equilibrium in a Competitive MarketIn a competitive market the prices of the two goods determine the terms of exchange among consumers. If A is the initial allocation of goods and the price line PP represents the ratio of prices, the competitive mark

19、et will lead to an equilibrium at C, the point of tangency of both indifference curves. As a result, the competitive equilibrium is efficient.Competitive EquilibriumFigure 16.6EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2Consumer Equilibrium in a Competitive Marketexcess demand When the quantity demanded of a good exc

20、eeds the quantity supplied.excess supply When the quantity supplied of a good exceeds the quantity demanded.EFFICIENCY IN EXCHANGE16.2The Economic Efficiency of Competitive MarketsIf everyone trades in the competitive marketplace, all mutually beneficial trades will be completed and the resulting eq

21、uilibrium allocation of resources will be economically efficient.Lets summarize what we know about a competitive equilibrium from the consumers perspective:1. Because the indifference curves are tangent, all marginal rates of substitution between consumers are equal.2. Because each indifference curv

22、e is tangent to the price line, each persons MRS of clothing for food is equal to the ratio of the prices of the two goods.(16.1)welfare economics Normative evaluation of markets and economic policyEQUITY AND EFFICIENCY16.3The Utility Possibilities FrontierThe utility possibilities frontier shows th

23、e levels of satisfaction that each of two people achieve when they have traded to an efficient outcome on the contract curve. Points E, F, and G correspond to points on the contract curve and are efficient. Point H is inefficient because any trade within the shaded area will make one or both people

24、better off.Competitive EquilibriumFigure 16.7EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY16.3The Utility Possibilities Frontierutility possibilities frontier Curve showing all efficient allocations of resources measured in terms of the utility levels of two individuals.Social Welfare Functionssocial welfare function Measu

25、re describing the well-being of society as a whole in terms of the utilities of individual members.EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY16.3Equity and Perfect CompetitionIf individual preferences are convex, then every efficient allocation (every point on the contract curve) is a competitive equilibrium for some in

26、itial allocation of goods.Literally, this theorem tells us that any equilibrium deemed to be equitable can be achieved by a suitable distribution of resources among individuals and that such a distribution need not in itself generate inefficiencies. Unfortunately, all programs that redistribute inco

27、me in our society are economically costly.EFFICIENCY IN PRODUCTION16.4Input Efficiencytechnical efficiency Condition under which firms combine inputs to produce a given output as inexpensively as possible.If producers of food and clothing minimize production costs, they will use combinations of labo

28、r and capital so that the ratio of the marginal products of the two inputs is equal to the ratio of the input prices:But we also showed that the ratio of the marginal products of the two inputs is equal to the marginal rate of technical substitution of labor for capital MRTSLK. As a result,(16.2)EFF

29、ICIENCY IN PRODUCTION16.4The Production Possibilities Frontierproduction possibilities frontier Curve showing the combinations of two goods that can be produced with fixed quantities of inputs.The production possibilities frontier shows all efficient combinations of outputs. The production possibili

30、ties frontier is concave because its slope (the marginal rate of transformation) increases as the level of production of food increases.Production Possibilities FrontierFigure 16.8EFFICIENCY IN PRODUCTION16.4The Production Possibilities Frontiermarginal rate of transformation Amount of one good that

31、 must be given up to produce one additional unit of a second good.Marginal Rate of TransformationAt every point along the frontier, the following condition holds:(16.3)EFFICIENCY IN PRODUCTION16.4Output EfficiencyThe efficient combination of outputs is produced when the marginal rate of transformati

32、on between the two goods (which measures the cost of producing one good relative to the other) is equal to the consumers marginal rate of substitution (which measures the marginal benefit of consuming one good relative to the other).Output EfficiencyFigure 16.9An economy produces output efficiently

33、only if, for each consumer,(16.4)EFFICIENCY IN PRODUCTION16.4Efficiency in Output MarketsWhen output markets are perfectly competitive, all consumers allocate their budgets so that their marginal rates of substitution between two goods are equal to the price ratio. For our two goods, food and clothi

34、ng,(16.5)At the same time, each profit-maximizing firm will produce its output up to the point at which price is equal to marginal cost. Again, for our two goods,andBecause the marginal rate of transformation is equal to the ratio of the marginal costs of production, it follows thatEFFICIENCY IN PRO

35、DUCTION16.4Output EfficiencyIn a competitive output market, people consume to the point where their marginal rate of substitution is equal to the price ratio. Producers choose outputs so that the marginal rate of transformation is equal to the price ratio. Because the MRS equals the MRT, the competi

36、tive output market is efficient. Any other price ratio will lead to an excess demand for one good and an excess supply of the other.Competition and Output EfficiencyFigure 16.10THE GAINS FROM FREE TRADE16.5Comparative Advantagecomparative advantage Situation in which Country 1 has an advantage over

37、Country 2 in producing a good because the cost of producing the good in 1, relative to the cost of producing other goods in 1, is lower than the cost of producing the good in 2, relative to the cost of producing other goods in 2.absolute advantage Situation in which Country 1 has an advantage over C

38、ountry 2 in producing a good because the cost of producing the good in 1 is lower than the cost of producing it in 2.THE GAINS FROM FREE TRADE16.5Comparative AdvantageWhat Happens when Nations TradeThe comparative advantage of each country determines what happens when they trade. The outcome will de

39、pend on the price of each good relative to the other when trade occurs.THE GAINS FROM FREE TRADE16.5An Expanded Production Possibilities FrontierWithout trade, production and consumption are at point A, where the price of wine is twice the price of cheese. With trade at a relative price of 1 cheese

40、to 1 wine, domestic production is now at B, while domestic consumption is at D. Free trade has allowed utility to increase from U1 to U2.The Gains from TradeFigure 16.11THE GAINS FROM FREE TRADE16.5THE GAINS FROM FREE TRADE16.5AN OVERVIEWTHE EFFICIENCYOF COMPETITIVE MARKETS16.6It is essential to rev

41、iew our understanding of the workings of the competitive process. We thus list the conditions required for economic efficiency in exchange, in input markets, and in output markets.1. Efficiency in exchange: All allocations must lie on the exchange contract curve so that every consumers marginal rate

42、 of substitution of food for clothing is the same:A competitive market achieves this efficient outcome because, for consumers, the tangency of the budget line and the highest attainable indifference curve assure that:AN OVERVIEWTHE EFFICIENCYOF COMPETITIVE MARKETS16.62. Efficiency in the use of inpu

43、ts in production: Every producers marginal rate of technical substitution of labor for capital is equal in the production of both goods:A competitive market achieves this efficient outcome because, for consumers, the tangency of the budget line and the highest attainable indifference curve assure th

44、at:AN OVERVIEWTHE EFFICIENCYOF COMPETITIVE MARKETS16.63. Efficiency in the output market: The mix of outputs must be chosen so that the marginal rate of transformation between outputs is equal to consumers marginal rates of substitution:A competitive market achieves this efficient outcome because, f

45、or consumers, the tangency of the budget line and the highest attainable indifference curve assure that:As a result,But consumers maximize their satisfaction in competitive markets only ifTherefore,(for all consumers)(for all consumers)WHY MARKETS FAIL16.7Suppose that unions gave workers market power over the supply of their labor in the production of food.