淺析綠色壁壘對(duì)我國(guó)外貿(mào)的影響外文文獻(xiàn)

1、 The Study on the Green Barrier to Trade under the Multi-Trade SystemDr. Chen-Kuo Lee and Tony Chen, Ling Tung University, Taiwan ABSTRACT At the time that the international trade continues to be liberated under the WTO framework, tariffs and the non-tariff barriers are removed one after another. As

2、 such, the Green Barrier to Trade (GBT), a major component of Technical Barrier to Trade (TBT), is becoming more and more important and has thus attracted attentions from around the world. This study adopts Game Theory and economic analysis methods to analyze the impact on the equilibrium between th

3、e exporting-nations manufacturers, importing-nations consumers, and importing-nations social welfare. Furthermore, this study assumes only one importing-nation and only one exporting-nation in the international market and the importing-nation has implemented GBT. According to the research results, G

4、BT has eliminated the pollutant products and non-green products one after another and has thus increased the eco-friendly products and green products in consideration of environment protection and humans health. Meanwhile, the developed nations have implemented GBT to restrict the imports from other

5、 nations in order to protect their domestic environments. As a result, more and more trades are being shifted to the developed nations or the member nations affiliated to the international economic organizations. As a result, the developing nations have hard time expanding their export markets and c

6、annot develop their economies. Key words: Green Barrier to Trade (GBT), Technical Barrier to Trade (TBT), World Trade Organization (WTO) 1. INTRODUCTION Faced with the irreversible trend of trade liberation under the World Trade Organization (hereinafter referred to as WTO), both tariffs and non-tar

7、iff barriers are removed one after another. The Green Barrier to Trade (hereinafter referred to as GBT), an important component of Technical Barrier to Trade (hereinafter referred to as TBT), is becoming more and more important and has thus attracted attentions from across the world. The Green Barri

8、er to Trade, also known as Environmental Barrier to Trade, entails ecological environment protection and human health consciousness together with import restriction against foreign nations. As such, the developed nations have implemented a series of complicated and tough measures, or GBT, against th

9、e developing nations. However, technical standards and quarantine are not considered barrier to trade. Actually, technical standards and quarantine more or less mirror the difference between various nations in terms of technical development and ecological standards (especially between the developed

10、nations and the developing nations). Furthermore, the importingnations implement their technical standards and quarantine to restrict imports. The exporting-nations are unable to meet the standards and have thus abandoned the international markets. Non-tariff barriers Non-tariff duties related to im

11、ports Price control measures Financial and monetary measures Automatic permits Quantity control measures Monopolistic measures Technical measures Source of data: this study Table 1 7 non-tariff barriers to trade Tangible measures Tariff additional fees, extra fees, and the domestic taxation imposed

12、on the imported goods. Administrative pricing, minimum prices, customs pricing system, anti-dumping, and anti-subsidy. Import bonds, request for earlier payments, multiple exchange rates, deferred payments, and foreign exchange control. Automatic permits, earlier supervision. Non-automatic permits i

13、ncluding earlier authorization, quota prohibition, export restriction & arrangements, enterprises special & tangible measures. Franchise, authorized imports, compulsory domestic services, discriminative government procurements. Technical ordinances, pre-shipping inspection, technical standards, elig

14、ibility assessment procedure, special customs procedure, used products return services, recyclable obligations, requirements for labels, green barriers to trade, animal & plants quarantines. There are two types of barriers to trade tariffs and non-tariff barrier (as shown by Table 1). WTO has held m

15、ulti-summits one after another since 1990s. A number of trade liberation rules and agreements were signed ever since. Meanwhile, both tariffs and non-tariff barriers are being removed one after another as time elapsed. Faced with the fierce competition in the international markets, more and more nat

16、ions are using GBT as non-tariff barrier. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge * Vol. 16 * Num. 2 * March 2011 122 In this connection, GBT is considered the most powerful tool to protect domestic markets by restricting imports from other nations. GBT has not been defined precisely

17、by the theorists up until now. In this study, GBT is defined as a wide array of environment protection ordinances, strict environment technical standards, environment protection quality administration, and certification system designed to protect the domestic industries or to launch trade retaliatio

18、n in compliance with the global trend in consideration of the deteriorating natural environments, social environments, and trade environments throughout the world and thereby protect the natural resources, ecological environments, human beings health, animal & plants safety, and life quality. GBT im

19、poses far-reaching influence in two aspects described as follows. Certain measures are adopted to serve the objective needs derived from economic development. Nowadays, both developed nations and developing nations are highly aware of their natural resources and ecological environments. With their c

20、oncern for human beings health and animal & plants safety, all nations around the world have adopted a series of tangible measures to prohibit the undesirable products from entering into their territories. On the other hand, however, certain measures are adopted subjectively. For example, some devel

21、oped nations have promulgated a number of laws and ordinances in accordance with the Agreement on the Technical Barrier to Trade and the Agreement on the Application of the Sanitary and Physosanitary Standards passed by WTO in order to protect their domestic markets. Furthermore, they have adopted a

22、 series of green technical standards, green packaging, green quarantine procedures, and have thus restricted imports. In this connection, GBT is implemented in accordance with the environment protection technical achievements and quarantine procedures of the host nations. The developing nations are

23、in a disadvantageous position. Moreover, the developed nations play a vital role when the international standards are enacted. As far as the international trade is concerned, the developed nations have better chance to penetrate into the developing nations markets. Nonetheless, the developing nation

24、s are often prohibited from the developed nations markets because their products often fail the environment protection requirements stipulated by the developed nations. In this connection, GBT is the most difficult barrier for the developing nations. On July 1, 2000, European Community revised the m

25、aximum allowable residues for teas and has thus adjusted the indexes 100 200 times higher than before. At the same time the allowable chloramphenicol residues was adjusted to 0.10.3ppb. As far the textile standards are concerned, most nations have adopted Oeko Tex Standard 100, aka ecological textil

26、e standard 100, which entails the tests of the amounts of various toxic and hazardous substances, such as disassociating formaldehyde residues, polychlorinated biphenyls pH, pesticide residues, antiseptic agents, and control over the textiles with emphasis on their pH values, formaldehyde, carcinoge

27、nic dyes, the dissolvable dyes to be decomposed into carcinogenic aromatic amines, the harmful heavy metals and halogen chromosome to cause skin reaction as well as pentachlorophenol, brightener, softener, and pesticides. All these standards were enacted by the developed nations in accordance with t

28、heir eco-friendly requirements, which are beyond the developing nations capabilities. Therefore, the developing nations products are unable to be accepted by the developed nations. According to the analysis, GBT is serving as a protection mechanism for trade. Furthermore, GBT is considered the most

29、secreted and unconquerable barrier to the trade. As time passed by, GBT has become the most important part of the international trade policies and is an interesting topic to the researchers. Motivated by the implications associated with GBT, this study attempts to explore the influence and motivatio

30、n of GBT under a multitrade system. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Foreign researchers began to study GBT in the 1970s. GBT study grew by leaps and bounds after the mid1990s, and has been considered a major component of TGT ever since. Most researchers stressed the macro level of theoretical study with equal

31、emphasis between normative analysis and empirical analysis. The researchers have accomplished tangible achievements in two aspects described hereunder: 2.1 International organizations and government agencies study on TBT AT the time that TBT is imposing more and more influence on international trade

32、, GATT and WTO have hurried up with their study on TBT, so do the nations around the world, and have thus made concrete achievements up until now. For example, GATT has passed the Treaty on Technical Barriers (TBT), the Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), Agric

33、ultural Agreement in its Uruguay Round , and has The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge * Vol. 16 * Num. 2 * March 2011 123 established a TBT Council to analyze the trade barriers to trade and release the “Annual Report on TBT” each year in which all TBT-related cases testified by me

34、mber nations are reviewed and possible solutions are proposed. Furthermore, a number of regional economic organizations, such as APEC, EU and the United States, are moving ahead with their study on TBT progressively. The Secretariat of APEC publicizes the research results obtained by its member nati

35、ons regarding TBT on a regular basis. These research results are most useful for those who intend to find out the influence imposed by TBT. EU and the United States release “Reports on Investment in Various Nations” through EU Commission and the United States Trade Representative Office. The Reports

36、 concentrate on the trading partners TBT statuses and the feasible countermeasures. 2.2. European and United States scholars study on TBT As to the study on TBT, the international organizations and government agencies concentrate on the application of TBT, whereas the European and United States scho

37、lars stress the theoretical study. in the early days, the theoretical study concentrates on the relationship between product standards and trade with emphasis as follows: I. Relationship between product standards and international trade Sturm (2001) studied the reasons behind the product standards w

38、ith emphasis on eliminating the difference between product standards. He believed that nations across the world had adopted product standards based upon political and economic considerations in order to protect their consumers benefits and to protect their environments. Furthermore, products standar

39、ds had caused tensions for the international trade. Therefore, Sturm concluded that the unification of product standards and the improvement of relationships would be sufficient to eliminate the difference arising from the different product standards adopted by different nations. Sykes(1995) believe

40、d that GATT rules were designed to remove the TBT arising from the different standards and ordinances promulgated by different nations. As far as foods standards are concerned, Wilson (2000) believed that all nations had established quality systems to ensure foods safety for themselves. In this conn

41、ection, the foods standards and ordinances promulgated by different nations had caused difference among all nations around the world. In his paper, Wilson had illustrated the qualify systems components (quality assurance system, analysis methods, etc.). Barret (2001) analyzed the reasons behind the

42、enterprises and nations incompliance with the international standard and concluded that the consumers varied preference and the standardizations excessive costs had discouraged the enterprises and nations to accept the international standards. Kent (2004) studied the influence on Chiles organic prod

43、uct exports imposed by EU Organic Foods Standard. II. Product standards and developing nations At the time that the developing nations are becoming more and more important in the international trade, a number of researchers have studied how the developing nations overcome TBT. Stephenson (1997) stud

44、ied the issues related to the developing nations standards from policy and system standpoints. He concluded that the developing nations tended to adopt the existing international standards as well as the internationalization guidance promulgated by ISO and IEC as their first choice. If there was no

45、standard available, the developing nations would resort to the standards adopted by their major trading partners, instead of establishing standards for themselves. Then, he analyzed the WTO-related agreements executed by the developing nations as well as the export-related issued encountered by the

46、developing nations. In his conclusion, Stephenson believed that the developed nations must help the developing nations upgrade their systems and technologies. According to the foregoing description, the phrase “GBT” has never appeared on any literature publicized in foreign countries, although it is

47、 often quoted by newspapers and magazines. In recent years, the developed nations have promulgated a series of complicated environment protection rules and environment technical standards, also known as GBT, based upon their technological advantages to protect the natural resources, ecological envir

48、onment, humans health, and have thus prohibited the products manufactured by other nations. Apparently, GBT is designed to protect domestic industries and is an important component of TBT. 3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS This study adopts Game Theory to demonstrate that GBT is designed to ensure the maximiz

49、ation of benefits for the nations. Secondly, this study attempts to analyze the influence on international trade imposed by GBT. 3.1. Game analysis Theoretically, all nations divide labors and exchange goods based upon their comparative advantages in The Journal of American Academy of Business, Camb

50、ridge * Vol. 16 * Num. 2 * March 2011 124 order to maximize their benefits. in reality, however, the free trade system is nothing but a utopia. Faced with the fierce competition in the international trade, more and more nations have resorted to the protectionism. In this connection, GBT is a powerfu

51、l tool that protects trade and maximizes benefits for the developed nations. This study uses the following game between two nations to analyze the motives behind GBT. Assumes: 1. Nation A and Nation B divide labors and exchange goods based upon their comparative advantages. Nation A is in an advanta

52、geous position for the production of Product a; whereas Nation B is in an advantageous position for the production of Product b. Therefore, both nations are importing goods from each other Nation A imports Product b from Nation B, and Nation B imports Product a from Nation A. 2. Nation A and Nation

53、B are allowed to prohibit the exports from each other via GBT exclusively. Therefore, both nations have two strategies, respectively either with GBT or without GBT. With the difference choices made by both nations, there are four outcomes illustrated as follows: When both nations establish GBT, Nati

54、on A and Nation B obtain 0 benefit, respectively. When Nation A does not establish GBT and Nation B establishes GBT, Nation A losses 1 unit of benefit and Nation B obtains 1 unit of benefit. When Nation A establishes GBT and Nation B does not establish GBT, Nation A obtains 1 unit of benefit and Nat

55、ion B loses 1 unit of benefit. When both nations do not establish GBT, they obtain 0.5 unit of benefit, respectively. According to the above analysis, both nations obtain 0.5 unit of benefit, respectively, if they do not establish GBT. Apparently, it is a “win-win” situation for both nations. In rea

56、lity, however, GBT serves as the dominant strategy when both nations are motivated by benefits. If GBT is permitted and Nation B chooses not to establish GBT but Nation A chooses to establish, Nation A earns 1 unit of benefit. If Nation B chooses to establish GBT but Nation A chooses not to establis

57、h, Nation A loses 1 unit of benefit. If both nations choose to establish GBT, they earn nothing at all. Apparently, Nation A chooses GBT for its benefits. 3.2 Influence on international trade imposed by GBT At the time that tariffs continue to drop and non-tariff barriers continue to be removed, GBT

58、 is becoming more and more important in all aspects of international trade in the 21st century. Now, GBT is the most renowned barrier to trade that has replaced tariffs and non-tariff barriers as time passed by. GBT influences international trade in different ways described as follows: (I) In the sh

59、ort-term, GBT decelerates the international trades expansion To streamline the analysis, this study: (1) assumes that GBT is the only barrier to trade, there is no any other barrier at all; (2) adopts a 2-nation model, an importing-nation and an exporting-nation, the importing-nations GBT influences

60、 the exporting-nation directly; (3) implements a transportation costs proposal and thereby analyzes the influence on the international trades expansion imposed by GBT from fours aspects described hereunder: 1. Trade restriction effect After the importing-nation establishes barriers, the exporting-na