國際經(jīng)濟學克魯格曼教材答案完整版

1、國際經(jīng)濟學克魯格曼教材答案-HUAS8Q8-HUAH168844ProblemsandAnswerstoChapter2QI：CanadaandAustraliaare(mainly)English-speakingcountrieswithpopulationsthatarenottoodifferentinsize(Canadasis60percentlarger).ButCanadiantradeistwiceaslarge,relativetoGDP,asAustralia?s.Whyshouldthisbethecase加拿大和澳大利亞都是英語國家，兩國的人口規(guī)模也相當(加拿大多60

2、$),但是相對各自的GDP而言，加拿大的貿(mào)易額是澳大利亞的兩倍，為什么如此？Al:AccordingtoGravityModel,GDPisnottheonlyfactortoexplainthevolumeoftradebetweentwocountries,becausedistanceisalsoanimportantfactor.Consideringthedistance,thetransportationcostofAustraliaisrelativelyhigherthanthatofCanada,sotheattractivenessoftradeisreduced.Howe

3、ver,CanadaisclosetotheUSAwhichisalargeeconomywhileAustraliaisnotclosetoanylargeeconomy,makingCanadamoreopenwhileAustraliaismoreautarky.GDP不是解釋兩國貿(mào)易量的唯一重要因素，距離也是至關重要的因素之一。考慮到距離，澳大利亞的進出口運輸成本相對更高，因此減少了貿(mào)易吸引力。因為加拿大與美國相鄰，而澳大利亞不與任何一個大經(jīng)濟體相鄰，這使得加拿大更加開放，而澳大利亞更加自給自足。Q2:MexicoandBrazilhaveverydifferenttradingpat

4、terns.MexicotradesmainlywiththeUnitedStates,BraziltradesaboutequallywiththeUnitedStatesandwiththeEuropeanUnion;MexicodoesmuchmoretraderelativetoitsGDP.Explainthesedifferencesusingthegravitymodel.墨西哥和巴西各自的貿(mào)易模式不同。墨西哥主要與美國貿(mào)易，巴西與美國和歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當。墨西哥的貿(mào)易量相對其GDP而言很大。用引力模型解釋這種現(xiàn)象。A2:MexicoisclosetotheUnitedStat

5、es,butisveryfarfromtheEuropeanUnion,soMexicosvalueoftradewiththeUnitedStatesislarge.BrazilisfarfromboththeUnitedStatesandEuropeanUnion,thus,Brazil?svolumeoftradewiththeUnitedStatesandwiththeEuropeanUnionisgenerallyequivalent.Mexico，svolumeoftradeislargerthanBrazils,fortworeasons:oneisthatMexicoisadj

6、acenttotheUnitedStateswhichisalargeeconomy;theotheristhatMexicoisoneofthemembersofNAFTA.Brazilisfarfromanylargeeconomy,andthesizeoftheeconomyforthecountrieswhichhavesignedfreetradeagreementswithBrazilisrelativelysmall.墨西哥與美國毗鄰，但是距離歐盟很遠，因此它與美國的貿(mào)易量很大。巴西離美國和歐盟都很遠，因此巴西與美國和歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當。墨西哥貿(mào)易量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨

7、西哥離大經(jīng)濟體美國近，另一方面由于它是北美貿(mào)易協(xié)定的成員國之一。巴西遠離任何一個大經(jīng)濟體，與它簽訂自由貿(mào)易協(xié)定的國家經(jīng)濟規(guī)模都比較小。Q3：Equation(2.1)saysthattradebetweenanytwocountriesisproportionaltotheproductoftheirGDPs.DoesthismeanthattheGDPofeverycountryintheworldweretoincreaseby50%,worldtradewouldincreaseby125%AnalyzethequestionusingthesimpleexampleshowninTab

8、le2-2.方程(2.1)表明兩個國家之間的貿(mào)易和它們的GDP乘積成正比。這是否意味著如果每個國家的GDP增加50%,世界的貿(mào)易量就增加125%分析這個問題用表格2-2的簡單例子。A3：Yes.IfbothcountriesGDPincreaseby50%,otherthingsequal,multiplyingtherighthandsideofequation(2.1)by(1+50%)*(1+50%)=225%andmultiplyingthelefthandsideofequation(2.1)by1+125%=225%,therefore,thevolumeoftradewillin

9、crease125%.UsingTable2-2,iffourcountriesGDPallincrease50%,thevolumeoftradewillincrease125%correspondingly,sothefirstlineofthetablewillbecome:-1.6*225%=3.60.4*225%=0.90.4*225%=0.9CountryAsGDPincreasesto4*(1+50%)=6(3.6+0.9+0.9=5.4).Accordingtotheassumption,theresultsarereasonablebecausetheresultsmeant

10、hatpartofcountryAsincomeisconsumedonimportsandpartofcountryAsincomeisconsumedondomesticproducts,althoughtheportionconsumeddomesticallyissmallerthanthatofimports.是的。如果兩個國家的GDP均增加50%,其他條件不變，方程(2.1)的右邊乘以(1+50%)*(1+50%)=225%,方程式的左邊乘以1+125%=225%,所以，世界的貿(mào)易量就增加125%o結(jié)合表格2-2,如果四個國家的GDP都增加50%倍,貿(mào)易量也增加125%,則表格第一

11、行的數(shù)據(jù)應為：一1.6*225%=3.60.4*225%=0.90.4*225%=0.9A國的GDP增加到4*(1+50%)=6(3.6+0.9+0.9=5.4)。根據(jù)假設,這個結(jié)果是合理的因為這意味著A國的支出一部分從國外進口一部分收入用于消費本國的產(chǎn)品，雖然用于本國消費的部分少于對其他國家的進口。Q4:Overthepastfewdecades,EastAsianeconomieshaveincreasedtheirshareofworldGDP.Similarly,intra-EastAsiantradethatis,tradeamongEastAsiannationshasgrowna

12、sashareofworldtrade.Morethanthat,EastAsiancountries3doanincreasingshareoftheirtradewitheachother.Explainwhy,usingthegravitymodel.在過去的幾十年中，東亞國家增加了它們在世界GDP中的份額。同樣，不僅東亞國家整體的貿(mào)易在世界貿(mào)易中的份額增加了，而且東亞國家內(nèi)相互間的貿(mào)易也增加了。應用引力模型解釋這一現(xiàn)象。A4:Inthepast,EastAsiancountriesareallsmalleconomies,meaningthattheirsizeofeconomiesi

13、ssmallandtheyareunabletoimportalotofgoods.AstheseEastAsiancountriesbecomericher,thedemandincreasesandtheycanimportmorethanbefore.ConsideringthatEastAsiancountrieshavebeenrichcountries,theybecometradingpartnerswitheachother;however,theymainlyimportedgoodsfromrichcountries.Basedongravitymodel,evenifth

14、edistancebetweenSouthKoreaandTaiwanissmall,thevolumeofthetwocountriesisverysmallduetotheirsmallsizeofeconomies.Butnow,becausetheirGDPhaveincreased,thevolumeoftradebetweenthetwocountriesincreasedcorrespondingly.之前，東亞國家都是小經(jīng)濟體，這說明它們的市場規(guī)模很小，不能大量進口。隨著它們越來越富裕，消費需求增加，它們也就能更多地進口了。這樣，之前它們主要向富國出口，現(xiàn)在它們自己成為了富國，

15、互相也就成為了貿(mào)易對象。根據(jù)引力模型，當韓國和臺灣GDP規(guī)模很小時，意味著盡管兩國的距離很近，但是兩國之間的貿(mào)易量很小。現(xiàn)在它們GDP增加了，它們之間的貿(mào)易量也隨之增大了。Q5:Acenturyago,mostFrenchimportscamefromrelativelydistantlocations:NorthAmerica,LatinAmerica,andAsia.Today,mostFrenchimportscomefromotherEuropeancountries.Howdoesthisfitwiththechangingtypesofgoodsthatmakeupworldtra

16、de一個世紀以前，法國的進口產(chǎn)品來自相對遙遠的地區(qū)：北美、拉丁美洲，和亞洲I。今天，法國絕大部分進口產(chǎn)品來自其他歐洲國家。這種變化是如何迎合不斷變化的世界貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品結(jié)構的？A5:Acenturyago,eachcountrystradingproductsaredeterminedbythecountry?sclimateandgeography.TheclimateandnaturalresourcesendowmentsinFrenchareverysimilartothatofotherEuropeancountries;therefore,Frenchcanonlyimportdiffe

17、rentproducts,suchas,cotton,rubber,andetc,fromotherwesternhemisphere(NorthAmerica,LatinAmerica)andAsia.However,afterindustrialrevolution,manufacturingtradeincreaseddramatically.Withthedevelopmentoftransportationandcommunicatetechnology,FrenchstradevolumewithotherEuropeancountriesincreasescorrespondin

18、gly,asthegravitymodelpredicteddirectly.一個世紀以前，各國貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品是由氣候和地理條件決定的。法國的氣候和自然資源稟賦和歐洲其他國家很相似，這樣法國只能從西半球其他國家、亞洲進口像棉花、橡膠這樣的產(chǎn)品，從歐洲其他國家進口產(chǎn)品很少。工業(yè)革命之后，制造品貿(mào)易增長，并且隨著交通和通訊的改進繼續(xù)擴張，因此法國轉(zhuǎn)向與歐洲其他經(jīng)濟體大量開展貿(mào)易是自然而然的，這就是引力模型的一個直接預測。Chapter3LHomehas1200unitsoflaboravailable.Itcanproducetwogoods,applesandbananas.Theunitlaborr

19、equirementinappleproductionis3,whileinbananaproductionitis2.Graphouttheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier：Whatistheopportunitycostofapplesintermsofbananas?Intheabsenceoftrade,whatwouldthepriceofapplesintermsofbananasbe?Intheabsenceoftrade,sincelaboristheonlyfactorofproductionandsupplydecisionsaredeterm

20、inedbytheattemptsofindividualstomaximizetheirearningsinacompetitiveeconomy,onlywhenPa/Pb=aLa/aLbwillbothgoodsbeproduced.SoPa/Pb=1.5在沒有貿(mào)易時，因為勞方是唯一的生產(chǎn)要素，并且供應決定取決于個體嘗試最大化他們的在競爭經(jīng)濟的收入，只有當兩件物品將被生產(chǎn)。因此HomeisasdescribedinproblemLThereisnowalsoanothercountry,Foreign,withalaborforceof800.Foreignsunitlaborrequi

21、rementinappleproductionis5,whileinbananaproductionitis1.b.Construe3.Nowsuppapples/da.Graol7口cvaSbnunvc/nc+Sncceu：414+；ac-Fv/%n+4ForeignsPPFQ*bananafora.Graphmerelativeaemanacurvealongwithrnerelativesupplycurve：VWhenthemarketachievesitsequilibrium,wehaveDq=2+。*=(-IRQb+Q，Pb/RDisahyperbolay=xWhatisthee

22、quilibriumrelativepriceofapples?TheequilibriumrelativepriceofapplesisdeterminedbytheintersectionoftheRDandRScurves.RD:x=-yxe0,0.5)y=1.5RS:PealPebPaIP/.Inthistwo-countryworld,Homewillspecializeintheappleproduction,exportapplesandimportbananas.Foreignwillspecializeinthebananaproduction,exportbananasan

23、dimportapples.ShowthatbothHomeandForeigngainfromtrade.InternationaltradeallowsHomeandForeigntoconsumeanywherewithinthecoloredlines,whichlieoutsidethecountriesproductionpossibilityfrontiers.Andtheindirectmethod,specializinginproducingonlyoneproductionthentradewithothercountry,isamoreefficientmethodth

24、andirectproduction.Intheabsenceoftrade,Homecouldgainthreebananasbyforegoingtwoapples,andForeigncouldgainbyoneforegoingfivebananas.Tradeallowseachcountrytotradetwobananasforoneapple.HomecouldthengainfourbananasbyforegoingtwoappleswhileForeigncouldgainoneapplebyforegoingonlytwobananas.SobothHomeandFor

25、eigngainfromtrade.國際貿(mào)易允許本國和外國任何地方在分界線之內(nèi)消耗，在一國生產(chǎn)可能性邊境之外說謊。并且間接方法，專門研究導致一生產(chǎn)比直接生產(chǎn)然后只換與其他國家，是一個高效率的方法。在沒有貿(mào)易時，首頁可能由前面二個蘋果獲取三個香蕉，并且外國可能由一前面五個香蕉獲取。貿(mào)易允許每個國家為一個蘋果換二個香蕉。首頁只能由前面二個蘋果然后獲取四個香蕉，當外國時能由前面二個香蕉獲取一個蘋果。因此首頁和從貿(mào)易的外國獲取。Supposethatinsteadof1200workers,Homehad2400.Findtheequilibriumrelativeprice.Whatcanyousa

26、yabouttheefficiencyofworldproductionandthedivisionofthegainsfromtradebetweenHomeandForeigninthiscase?RD:x=yxe0J)y=1.5RS:x=ye1.5,5xe(L+sy=5.2.x=y=1.53AP(a!Peb=.5Inthiscase,Foreignwillspecializeinthebananaproduction,exportbananasandimportapples.ButHomewillproducebananasandapplesatthesametime.Andtheopp

27、ortunitycostofbananasintermsofapplesforHomeremainsthesame.SoHomeneithergainsnorlosesbutForeigngainsfromtrade.在這種情況下，外國將專門研究香蕉生產(chǎn)，出口香蕉和進口蘋果。但是本國同時將生產(chǎn)香蕉和蘋果。并且香蕉的機會成本根據(jù)蘋果的本國的依然是同樣。因此本國不獲取也不丟失，而是從貿(mào)易的外國獲取。SupposethatHomehas2400workers,buttheyareonlyhalfasproductioninbothindustriesaswehavebeenassuming,Cons

28、tructtheworldrelativesupplycurveanddeterminetheequilibriumrelativeprice.Howdothegainsfromtradecomparewiththoseinthecasedescribedinproblem4?Inthiscase,thelaborisdoubledwhiletheproductivityoflaborishalved,sotheeffectivelaborremainsthesame.Sotheanswerissimilartothatin3.AndbothHomeandForeigncangainfromt

29、rade.ButForeigngainslessercomparewiththatinthecase4.Pa/PbTheWorldRelativeSupplyCurvect*必/.勸=5a/a仿=小=0.5Koreanworkersearnonly$2.50anhour;ifweallowKoreatoexportasmuchasitlikestotheUnitedStates,ourworkerswillbeforceddowntothesameleveLYoucantimporta$5shirtwithoutimportingthe$2.50wagethatgoeswithit.”Disc

30、uss.Infact,relativewagerateisdeterminedbycomparativeproductivityandtherelativedemandforgoods.KoreaslowwagereflectsthefactthatKoreaislessproductivethantheUnitedStatesinmostindustries.Actually,tradewithalessproductive,lowwagecountrycanraisethewelfareandstandardoflivingofcountrieswithhighproductivity,s

31、uchasUnitedStates.Sothispauperlaborargumentiswrong.實際上，相對工資率取決于比較生產(chǎn)力和對物品的相對需求。Koreas低工資反射事實韓國比多數(shù)產(chǎn)業(yè)的美國較不有生產(chǎn)力的。實際上，與一個較不有生產(chǎn)力，低工資國家的貿(mào)易可能培養(yǎng)國家福利和生活水平有高生產(chǎn)力的，例如美國。因此這個叫花子勞方論據(jù)是錯誤的。JapaneselaborproductivityisroughlythesameasthatoftheUnitedStatesinthemanufacturingsector(higherinsomeindustries,lowerinothers),w

32、hiletheUnitedStates,isstillconsiderablymoreproductiveintheservicesector.Butmostservicesarenon-traded.SomeanalystshavearguedthatthisposesaproblemfortheUnitedStates,becauseourcomparativeadvantageliesinthingswecannotsellonworldmarkets.Whatiswrongwiththisargument?Thecompetitiveadvantageofanyindustrydepe

33、ndsonboththerelativeproductivitiesoftheindustriesandtherelativewagesacrossindustries.Sotherearefouraspectsshouldbetakenintoaccountbeforewereachconclusion:boththeindustriesandservicesectorsofJapanandU.S.,notjustthetwoservicesectors.Sothisstatementdoesnotbadeonthereasonablelogic.所有產(chǎn)業(yè)的競爭優(yōu)勢取決于產(chǎn)業(yè)的相對生產(chǎn)力和橫

34、跨產(chǎn)業(yè)的親戚薪水。因此，在我們得出結(jié)論之前，有四個方面應該考慮到：產(chǎn)業(yè)和日本和美國，不僅二個服務部門的服務部門。不因此這個聲明在合理的邏輯出了價。AnyonewhohasvisitedJapanknowsitisanincrediblyexpensiveplace;althoughJapaneseworkersearnabouttheseuneastheirU.S.counterpeurts,thepurchasingpoweroftheirincomesisaboutone-thirdless.Extendyourdiscussingfromquestion7toexplainthisobs

35、ervation.(Hint:Thinkaboutwagesandtheimpliedpricesofnon-tradegoods.)TherelativehigherpurchasingpowerofU.S.issustainedandmaintainedbyitsconsiderablyhigherproductivityinservices.Becausemostofthoseservicesarenon-traded,Japanesecouldnotbenefitfromthoselowerservicecosts.AndU.S.doesnothavetofacealowerinter

36、nationalpriceofservices.SothepurchasingpowerofJapaneseisjustone-thirdoftheirU.S.counterparts.美國的相對更高的購買力由它的在服務的相當?shù)馗叩纳a(chǎn)力承受并且維護。由于大多那些服務non-traded,日語不可能受益于那些更低的服務費用。并且美國不必須面對服務的一個更低的國際價格。因此日語的購買力是他們的美國相對物的三分之OHowdoesthefactthatmanygoodsarenon-tradedaffecttheextentofpossiblegainsfromtrade?Actuallytheg

37、ainsfromtradedependedontheproportionofnon-tradedgoods.Thegainswillincreaseastheproportionofnon-tradedgoodsdecrease.Wehavefocusedonthecaseoftradeinvolvingonlytwocountries.Supposethattherearemanycountriescapableofproducingtwogoods,andthateachcountryhasonlyonefactorofproduction,labor.Whatcouldwesayabou

38、tthepatternofproductionandinthiscase(Hint:Tryconstructingtheworldrelativesupplycurve.)Anycountriestotheleftoftheintersectionoftherelativedemandandrelativesupplycurvesexportthegoodinwhichtheyhaveacomparativeadvantagerelativetoanycountrytotherightoftheintersection.Iftheintersectionoccursinahorizontalp

39、ortionthenthecountrywiththatpriceratioproducesbothgoods.Chapter4In1986,thepriceofoilonworldmarketsdroppedsharply.SincetheUnitedStatesisanoil-importingcountry,thiswaswidelyregardedasgoodfortheU.S.economy.YetinTexasandLouisiana1986wasayearofeconomicdecline.Why?ItcandeducethatTexasandLouisianaareoil-pr

40、oducingstatesofUnitedStates.Sowhenthepriceofoilonworldmarketsdeclined,therealwageofthisindustryfellintermsofothergoods.Thismightbethereasonofeconomicdeclineinthesetwostatesin1986.2oAneconomycanproducegood1usinglaborandcapitalandgood2usinglaborandland.Thetotalsupplyoflaboris100units.Giventhesupplyofc

41、apital,theoutputsofthetwogoodsdependsonlaborinputasfollows：Toanalyzetheeconomy,sproductionpossibilityfrontier,considerhowtheoutputmixchangesaslaborisshiftedbetweenthetwosectors.Graphtheproductionfunctionsforgood1andgood2.Graphtheproductionpossibilityfrontier.Whyisitcurved?ThePPFiscurvedduetodeclinin

42、gmarginalproductoflaborineachgood.Thetotallaborsupplyisfixed.SoasLxrises,MPLtfalls;correspondingly,asL：falls,MPL：rises.SoPPgetssteeperaswemovedownittotheright.Themarginalproductoflaborcurvescorrespondingtotheproductionfunctionsinproblem2areasfollows:Supposethatthepriceofgood2relativetothatofgood1is2

43、.Determinegraphicallythewagerateandtheallocationoflaborbetweenthetwosectors.Withtheassumptionthatlaborisfreelymobilebetweensectors,itwillmovefromthelow-wagesectortothehigh-wagesectoruntilwagesareequalized.Soinequilibrium,thewagerateisequaltothevalueoflabor*smarginalproduct.假設勞方自由地是在區(qū)段之間的機動性，它從低工資的區(qū)段

44、將移動向high-wage區(qū)段，直到薪水被調(diào)平。因此在平衡，工資率與labors邊際產(chǎn)品的價值是相等的。Theabscissaofpointofintersectionillustratedaboveshouldbebetween(20,30).Sinceweonlyhavetofindouttheapproximateanswer,linearfunctioncouldbeemployed.ThelaborallocationbetweenthesectorsisapproximatelyLi=27andLc=73.Thewagerateisapproximately0.98.被說明的交點橫

45、坐標以上應該之間(20,30)。因為我們必須只發(fā)現(xiàn)近似答復，線性函數(shù)可能被使用。在區(qū)段之間的The辛苦分派是大約L127和L2=73。工資率是大約0.98oUsingthegraphdrawnforproblem2,determinetheoutputofeachsector.Thenconfirmgraphicallythattheslopoftheproductionpossibilityfrontieratthatpointequalstherelativeprice.TherelativepriceisP/P尸2andwehavegottheapproximatelaboralloca

46、tion,sowecanemploythelinearfunctionagaintocalculatetheapproximateoutputofeachsector:Qi=44andQ二二90.相對價格是P2/P2,并且我們有近似辛苦分派，因此我們可以再使用線性函數(shù)計算每個區(qū)段近似產(chǎn)品：Ql=44和Q2=90oSupposethattherelativepriceofgood2fallsto1.Repeat(a)and(b).Therelativedeclineinthepriceofgood2causedlabortobereallocated:laborisdrawnoutofprodu

47、ctionofgood2andentersproductionofgood1(Li=62,L：=38).Thisalsoleadstoanoutputadjustment,thatis,productionofgood2fallsto68unitsandproductionofgood1risesto76units.Andthewagerateisapproximatelyequalto0.74.在導致的價格的相對衰落的好2將被再分配的勞方：勞方被畫出于生產(chǎn)好2并且輸入好1的生產(chǎn)(L1=62,L2=38)。這也導致輸出調(diào)整，即，好2個秋天到68個單位的生產(chǎn)和生產(chǎn)好1上升到76個單位。并且工資率

48、是大約相等到0.74oQ=9(3)Calculatetheeffectsofthepricechangeontheincomeofthespecificfactorsinsectors1and2.WiththerelativepricechangefromP:/Pt=2toP/P1二1,thepriceofgood2hasfallenby50percent,whilethepriceofgood1hasstayedthesame.Wageshavefallentoo,butbylessthanthefallinP：(wagesfellapproximately25percent).Thus,t

49、herealwagerelativetoP:actuallyriseswhilerealwagerelativetoPifalls.Hence,todeterminethewelfareconsequenceforworkers,theinformationabouttheirconsumptionsharesofgood1andgood2isneeded.相對價格變動，而價格的好1停留了同樣，從P2/P1=2到P2/PF1,價格的好2由50%下落了。薪水由較少比在P2的秋天下落了，但是（薪水落大約25%）。因此，當實際工資相對P1落時，實際工資相對P2實際上上升。因此，確定工作者的福利救濟后

50、果，關于他們的消耗量份額的信息好1和好2是需要的。Inthetextweexaminedtheimpactsofincreasesinthesupplyofcapitalandland.Butwhatifthemobilefactor,labor,increasesinsupply?a.Analyzethequalitativeeffectsofanincreaseinthesupplyoflaborinthespecificfactorsmodel,holdingthepriceofbothgoodsconstant.Foraneconomyproducingtwogoods,XanY,wi

51、thlabordemandsreflectedbytheirmarginalrevenueproductcurves,thereisaninitialwageofwxandaninitiallaborallocationofLx=0 xAandL7=0：,A.Whenthesupplyoflaborincreases,therightboundaryofthediagramillustratedbelowpushedoutto0/.ThedemandforlaborinsectorYispulledrightwardwiththeboundary.Thenewintersectionofthe

52、labordemandcurvesshowsthatlaborexpandsinbothsectors,andthereforeoutputofbothXandYalsoexpand.Therelativeexpansionofoutputisambiguous.Wagespaidtoworkersfall.baGraphtheeffectontheequilibriumforthenumericalexampleinproblems2and3,givenarelativepriceof1,whenthelaborforceexpandsfrom100to140.Withthelawofdim

53、inishingreturns,thenewproductionpossibilityfrontierismoreconcaveandsteeper(flatter)attheendswhentotallaborsupplyincreases.Liincreaseto90from62andLincreasesto50from38.Wagesdeclinefrom0.74to0.60.ThisnewallocationoflaborleadstoanewoutputmixofapproximatelyQt=85andQ:=77.Chapter4IntheUnitedStateswhereland

54、ischeap,theratiooflandtolaborusedincattlerisingishigherthanthatoflandusedinwheatgrowing.Butinmorecrowdedcountries,wherelandisexpensiveandlaborischeap,itiscommontoraisecowsbyusinglesslandandmorelaborthanAmericemsusetogrowwheat.CanwestillsaythatraisingcattleislandintensivecomparedwithfarmingwheatWhyor

55、whynotThedefinitionofcattlegrowingaslandintensivedependsontheratiooflandtolaborusedinproduction,notontheratiooflandorlabortooutput.TheratiooflandtolaborincattleexceedstheratioinwheatintheUnitedStates,implyingcattleislandintensiveintheUnitedStates.Cattleislandintensiveinothercountriestooiftheratioofl

56、andtoNowsupposethatthelaborsupplyincreasefirstto800,then1000,then1200hours.UsingadiagramlikeFigure4-6,traceoutthechangingallocationofresources.Whatwouldhappenifthelaborsupplyweretoincreaseevenfurther?Atconstantfactorprices,somelaborwouldbeunused,sofactorpriceswouldhavetochange,ortherewouldbeunemploy

57、ment.“Theworldspoorestcountriescannotfindanythingtoexport.Thereisnoresourcethatisabundantcertainlynotcapitalorland,andinsmallpoornationsnotevenlaborisabundant.Discuss.Thegainsfromtradedependoncomparativeratherthanabsoluteadvantage.Astopoorcountries,whatmattersisnottheabsoluteabundanceoffactors,butth

58、eirrelativeabundance.Poorcountrieshaveanabundanceoflaborrelativetocapitalwhencomparedtomoredevelopedcountries.TheU.S.labormovement-whichmostlyrepresentsblue-collarworkersratherthanprofessionalsandhighlyeducatedworkers-hastraditionallyfavoredlimitsonimportsformless-affluentcountries.Isthisashortsight

59、edpolicyofarationaloneinviewoftheinterestsofunionmembersHowdoestheanswerdependonthemodeloftradeIntheRicardo?smodel,laborgainsfromtradethroughanincreaseinitspurchasingpower.Thisresultdoesnotsupportlaboruniondemandsforlimitsonimportsfromlessaffluentcountries.IntheImmobileFactorsmodellabormaygainorlose

60、fromtrade.Purchasingpowerintermsofonegoodwillrise,butintermsoftheothergooditwilldecline.TheHeckscher-Ohlinmodeldirectlydiscussesdistributionbyconsideringtheeffectsoftradeontheownersoffactorsofproduction.Inthecontextofthismodel,unskilledU.S.laborlosesfromtradesincethisgrouprepresentstherelativelyscar