臨床神經(jīng)學(xué)：Emotional Behaviors

1、Emotional BehaviorsCONTENTS目錄1EMOTION AND BEHAVIOR2PLEASURE3ANGER AND AGGRESSIONEMOTION AND BEHAVIOR1IntroductionTheoryBrain areaIntroduction This is a dangerous situation, I run, I feel frightenedcognitionsfeelingsactionsEmotionsWhat is emotion？Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief c

2、onscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure.Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation.From W

3、ikipediaEmotion classificationHandel, Steven. Classification of Emotions. Retrieved 30 April 2012Emotion classificationEmotion classificationEmotion and BehaviorEvolutionary theoriesSomatic theories（William James） Bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions.Jam

4、esLange theory（William James） An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear).CannonBard theory（Walter Bradford Cannon ） An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simu

5、ltaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.Two-factor theory（Stanley Schachter，Gregorio Maran ） Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion.Cognitive theories（Richard Lazarus，George Mandler .） The q

6、uality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes.Perceptual theory（Goldie） emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways.Affective events theory（Howard

7、M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano，）emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors.JamesLange theory（James, 1884）詹姆斯：情緒是對身體變化的覺知。蘭 格：情緒是內(nèi)臟活動的結(jié)果。JamesLange theory（James, 1884）Bodily states causing emotions and being a prioriThe perception of bodily changes,

8、as they occur, is the emotion.We feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be. This is a dangerous situation, I run, I feel frightenedAutonomic Arousal and James-Lange

9、TheoryThe sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systemsEmotion Behavior Detection videoIs Physiological Arousal Necessary for Emotions?SCI Emotions are the same (Cobos, Snchez, Prez, & Vila, 2004)Emotions do not need feedback from muscle movement Paralysis autonomic nervous systemPure autonomic fa

10、ilure Reported the same emotions, little difficulty identifying the emotion of a character, feel much less intensely than previously Report emotion-cognitive aspect, they do not feel, or feel it weakly “Yes, Im angry, because this is a situation that calls for anger.” (Critchley, Mathias, & Dolan, 2

11、001, Heims, Critchley, Dolan, Mathias, & Cipolotti, 2004) Is Physiological Arousal Sufficient for Emotions?Heart started racing and started breathing rapidly and sweating emotion？Run a mile exerciseExtreme sympathetic nervous system arousal Panic attackSmile happier?TRY：Holding pen with teethFrownHo

12、wever, although smiles and frowns slightly alter happiness, smiles are not necessary for happiness.STOP & CHECK1. According to the James-Lange theory, what kind of person should feel no emotions?2. How did researchers get people to smile or frown without using those words?Brain areas associated with

13、 emotionDo different emotions activate different brain areas? Moreover, which brain areas react most strongly to emotions?PET fMRIFunctional neuro-anatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRIBrain areas associated with emotionHypothesis Insula frightening/disgust

14、ing pictures Sound Disgust Insula and othersTBI retching soundC. Murphy, Nimmo-Smith, & Lawrence, 2003; Wicker et al., 2003 ;M. L. Phillips et al., 1997) (Calder, Keane, Manes, Antoun, & Young, 2000)Brain areas associated with emotionHypothesis Lt & Rt hemisphere frontal cortexLt-Behavioral Activati

15、on System (BAS)low to moderate autonomic arousal and a tendency to approachPersonality: happier, outgoingRt-Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)increases attention and arousal, inhibits action, and stimulates emotions such as fear and disgustPersonality: less satisfied with life, prone to unpleasant e

16、motions(Davidson & Fox, 1982; Davidson & Henriques, 2000; F. C. Murphy et al., 2003; Reuter-Lorenz & Davidson, 1981)(Knyazev, Slobodskaya, & Wilson, 2002; Schmidt, 1999; Urry et al., 2004)Brain areas associated with emotionHypothesis Lt & Rt hemisphere frontal cortexRtLaughter or crying - right amyg

17、dala (Sander & Scheich, 2001). Emotional expression - right temporal cortex (Narumoto,Okada,Sadato,Fukui,& Yonekura, 2001). TBI Rt temporal cortex identifying emotional expressions (H. J. Rosen et al., 2002)Honest? People with lt brain damage 60% correct (Etcoff, Ekman, Magee, & Frank, 2000)11 pt wa

18、da procedure-ltcould not be interviewed, Rtdescribe event, deny emotion (Ross, Homan, & Buck, 1994)Main ideasEmotions include cognitions, actions, and feelings. Several kinds of evidence support the theory that emotional feelings result from actions of the muscles or organs.Many brain areas contribu

19、te to emotions. It is not clear that different emotions are localized differently in the brain.Aggressive and fearful behaviors represent the combined outcome of many biological and environmental influences.The amygdala responds quickly to emotional stimuli. Damage to the amygdala interferes with at

20、tention to information that is relevant to emotions.PLEASURE2Our existence seek pleasure？Voluntary behavior in animals is motivated by the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure.The orbital aspect of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is known to play a critical role in goal-directed behavior. Happi

21、nessThere is clinical evidence to suggest that ones level of happiness remains remarkably fixed？The initial studies came in the mid-fifties when Olds and Milner accidentally discovered that a rat would seek to continue stimulation from a thin electrode implanted in certain parts of his brain.up to 5

22、,000 times in an hourchose stimulation over food even when starvingcross an electrified grid for a chance to press the leverANATOMY OF REWARDThe anatomy of pleasure and reward is mediated in the nucleus accumbens with input from a variety of structures, only a few of which are shownhere. NAc, nucleu

23、s accumbens; PFC, prefrontal cortex; VTA, ventral tegmental area腹側(cè)被蓋區(qū).DA is the primary neurotransmitter that modulates the reward systemBehaviors that people enjoy seem to precipitate an increase in DA produced at the NAc.Methylphenidate哌醋甲酯 and occupancy of the dopamine reuptake transporter (A). H

24、igher doses of methylphenidate result in increased occupancy of the dopamine transporter, which results in increased dopamine being available to the nucleus accumbens andat strong enough levelsfeeling “high” (B). (Adapted from Volkow 227 ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, et al. Role of dopamine in the therape

25、utic and reinforcing effects of methylphenidate in humans: results from imaging studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;12(6):557-566.)Behaviors that people enjoy seem to precipitate an increase in DA produced at the NAc.Drugs of abuse and pleasant feelings light up the mesolimbic dopamine pathway i

26、n functional imaging studies in humans. The studies documenting these indings are listed at the bottom of the figure.Behaviors that people enjoy seem to precipitate an increase in DA produced at the NAc.Habituation. When first given chocolate, a rat shows a significant increase in its dopamine at th

27、e nucleus accumbens, which does not occur when given the same food on the following day. (Adapted from Bassareo V, De Luca MA, Di Chiara G. Differential expression of otivational stimulus properties by dopamine in nucleus accumbens shell versus core and prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci. 2002;22(11):470

28、9-4719.)One study compared intelligence as measured by IQ in 172 menAlcoholism correlated with a broad range of impairment in executive functionSmoking affected measures that emphasize response speed The cigarette enhances their attention and in studies nicotine acutely improves cognitive performanc

29、eANGER AND AGGRESSION3Anger and AggressionAnger and aggression are fundamental reactions throughout the animal kingdom.Yet, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) does not include a category for inappropriate anger.There is no sanctioned pharmacologic intervention for excessive anger and irrita

30、bility.Working with cats, Flynn at Yale, and Siegel at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, identified two types of aggressive behavior. One is more predatorysimilar to huntingthe cat quietly and calmly stalks his prey. The other type of aggression is defensive.Anger and Aggressio

31、nMECHANISMS IN THE BRAIN HypothalamusThe different features of each kind of aggressionAnalysis of playground behavior, spousal abuse, and serial killers supports the dichotomy of a reactive/impulsive/defensive type of aggression and a stealthy/premeditated/hunting type of aggression, although a comb

32、ination of the two types is a common finding in any specific aggressive act. MECHANISMS IN THE BRAIN HypothalamusThe bite to the back of the neck is preceded by quiet, stealthy circling of the rodent. It is worth noting that the researchers used cats in these experiments that would not bite the rat

33、before the hypothalamic stimulation.MECHANISMS IN THE BRAIN HypothalamusIn this case, the cat becomes aroused (high sympathetic tone, increased heart rate, dilated pupils瞳孔擴大, etc.) and displays hostile behavior (hissing發(fā)出嘶嘶聲, growling嚎叫聲, arching back弓背, piloerection立毛, etc.).MECHANISMS IN THE BRAI

34、N Frontal CortexHe recovered, was out of bed within a month, and lived another 12 years.However, his personality had drastically changed. While before the accident he had been efficient, balanced, and responsible, now he was fitful, impulsive, unfocused, and easily agitated.The frontal cortex applie

35、s the brakes to the array of primitive impulses that arise from the subcortical brainMECHANISMS IN THE BRAIN Frontal CortexClearly, the frontal cortex has an inhibitory effect on aggressive expressions. It is unfortunate that we have not found a way to “beef up” a wimpy frontal cortex.MECHANISMS IN

36、THE BRAIN Frontal CortexOne wishes there was a way for men in prison to exercise and strengthen their frontal cortex as much as they exercise their biceps.MECHANISMS IN THE BRAIN AmygdalaThere is conflicting information about the role of the amygdala and aggressive behavior.Early studies with monkeys showed that the bilateral removal of the amygdala produced an animal that was placid平和的neither frightened nor aggressive（Klver-Bucy syndrome）. Some research suggest that the amygdala is instrumental in recognizing whether a stimulus is threatenin