Understanding public policy 理解公共政策

1、Understanding public policy 理解公共政策（朱青整理）chapter IPolicy analysispiDefinition of policy公共政策定義Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.公共政策就是政府選擇做與選擇不做的事情；Public policies may regulate behavior, organize bureaucracies, distribute benefits, or extract taxes-or all things at once.公

2、共政策涉及調(diào)節(jié)個體行為、構(gòu)建官僚體系、分配利益、征稅、或者同事完成這些事務(wù)。P1-2Policy expansion f 政策擴張Government growth f 政府?dāng)U大The new deal programs devised f 羅斯福新政The great depression大蕭條The national economy f 國民經(jīng)濟The great society programs f 大社會計劃0Economic downturn f 經(jīng)濟滑坡Regulatory activity f 管制活動P3圖示指標(biāo)What the Federal Government Does

3、聯(lián)邦政府職能Defense國防Social security and Medicare社會保障和醫(yī)療保險Interest on the national debt國債的利息Health衛(wèi)生保健Welfare社會福利Transportation交通運輸Education教育Natural resources and environment自然資源和環(huán)境Law enforcement執(zhí)法Veterans退伍軍人All other其他What state and local government do 州和地方政府職能Education教育Welfare社會福利Health and hospital

4、s保健和醫(yī)療Highways高速公路Police and fire治安和消防Sanitation衛(wèi)生Prisons監(jiān)獄Natural resources and environment自然資源和環(huán)境All other其他P4Dependent variables f 因變量The independent variables 自變量Determinants f決定性因素Policy evaluation f 政策評估P6The difference between policy analysis and policy advocacy政策分析與政策倡議的差別Policy advocacy req

5、uires the skills of rhetoric, persuasion, organization, and activism.政策倡議需要修辭、說服、組織與實踐的技巧；Policy analysis encourages scholars and students to attack critical policy issues with the tools of systematic inquiry. 政策分析則鼓勵學(xué)者運用系統(tǒng)研究的工具來探討重要的政策問題。Translation f policy analysis involves 政策分析內(nèi)容explanation rath

6、er than prescription.政策分析主要關(guān)注的是政策的解釋說明而不是提出政策建議；A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies.政策分析探索公共政策的原因和結(jié)果；An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevanc

7、e.政策分析還試圖發(fā)展并檢驗關(guān)于公共政策因果的一般性命題，以及積累具有普遍意 義的、可靠的研究成果。P7-8The limitations of policy analysis公共政策的局限性Limits on government power政府權(quán)力的有限性Disagreement over the problem社會問題認定上的分歧 Subjectivity in interpretation政策解釋的主觀性Limitations on design of human research人類研究設(shè)計的局限性Complexity of human behavior人類行為的復(fù)雜性Transla

8、tion fUnderstanding public policy is both an art and a craft. It is an art because it requires insight, creativity, and imagination in identifying societal problems and describing them, in devising public policies that might alleviate them, and them in finding out whether these policies end up makin

9、g things better or worse.公共政策分析既是一門藝術(shù)，也是一種技術(shù)。說它是一門藝術(shù)，是因為在社會問題確認、社 會問題描述、政策方案設(shè)計和政策效果評估時，需要有洞察力、創(chuàng)造力和想象力。chapter 2Models of politicspiiDefinition of models for policy analysis 政策分析模型的定義A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of some aspect of the real world.模型是對現(xiàn)實世界某個方面進行簡化的表現(xiàn)形式。Conceptua

10、l models/word models 概念性的模型Actual physical representation 真實物質(zhì)表型形式Uses of models模型的運用Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy簡化并澄清我們對政治和公共政策的思考Identify important aspects of policy problems識別政策問題的重要方面Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of

11、 political life通過關(guān)注政治生活的主要特征，促進我們相互之間的溝通Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by suggesting what is important and what is unimportant指導(dǎo)我們更好地理解公共政策，鑒別重要與不重要的方面Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences解釋公共政策并預(yù)測其結(jié)果Selected policy modelsInstitutional model（制度主義模

12、型）Process model（過程模型）Rational model（理性主義模型）Incremental model （漸進主義模型）Group model（團體理論模型）Elite model（精英模型）Public choice model （公共選擇模型） Game theory model （博弈論模型）P14The policy process 政策過程Problem identification 問題確認The identification of policy problems throughdemand from individuals and groups for gove

13、rnment action.Agenda setting 議程設(shè)定Focusing the attention of the mass media and public officialson specific public problems to decide what will be decided.Policy formulation 政策形成The development of policy proposals by interest groups,White House staff, congressional committees, and think tanks.Policy l

14、egitimating 政策合法化The selection and enactment of polices through actionsby Congress, the president, and the courts.Policy implementation 政策執(zhí)行The implementation of policies through governmentbureaucracies, public expenditures, regulations, and other activities of executive agencies.Policy evaluation 政

15、策評估The evaluation of policies by government agenciesthemselves, outside consultants, the media, and the general public.問題確認 通過公民對政府行為的要求來確認政策問題；議程設(shè)定 特定的公共問題引起媒體和政府官員的關(guān)注，促使其被提上政策議程；政策形成 由利益集團、白宮官員、國會議員和智囊團提出政策建議；政策合法化 通過國會、總統(tǒng)和法院的政治活動，選擇并制定政策；政策執(zhí)行通過官僚組織、公共支出、行政機構(gòu)的活動來推動政策實施；政策評估 由政府機構(gòu)本身，政策外部的顧問、咨詢?nèi)藛T，媒體

16、和公眾等來評價政策實 施的結(jié)果。P15To select a rational policy, policymakers must決策者如何選擇合乎理性的政策Know all the societys value preferences and their relative weights,Know all the policy alternatives available,Know all the consequences of each policy alternative,Calculate the ratio of benefits to costs for each policy a

17、lternative, andSelect the most efficient policy alternative.了解所有的社會價值偏好及其相對權(quán)重；了解可以獲得的所有備選方案；知道每一備選方案的所有結(jié)果；計算每一備選方案的收益與成本之比；選擇其中最有效的政策方案；P18-19incrementalism: policy as variations on the past?為什么說漸進主義中政策是過去改革的補充和修正？Because they do not have the time, information, or money to investigate all the altern

18、atives to existing policy;Policymakers accept the legitimacy of previous policies because of the uncertainty about the consequences of completely new or different policies;There may be heavy investments in existing programs(sunk costs), which preclude any really radical change;incrementalism is poli

19、tically expedient;In the absence of any agreed-on societal goals or values.政府沒有足夠的時間、信息和金錢來調(diào)查能夠替代現(xiàn)行政策的政策方案；決策者承認以往政策的合法性，因為全新的或完全不同的政策的結(jié)果存在著不確定 性；在現(xiàn)行的政策項目上可能有巨大的投入(沉淀成本)，這也阻礙了任何徹底的變革；漸進主義也是政治上的權(quán)宜之計；在對社會目標(biāo)或價值沒有達成共識的情況下P20Earl Latham described public policy厄爾萊瑟姆從團體理論角度對公共改革的定義Public policy is actually

20、 the equilibrium reached in the group struggle at any given moment, and it represents a balance which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to tip in their favor所謂公共政策，實際上就是團體競爭在既定時間達到均衡的結(jié)果，它代表的是相互競爭的派 別或團體堅持不懈地努力為維護自身利益而達到的平衡P22Elite theory精英理論的內(nèi)容Society is divided into the few who ha

21、ve power and the many who do not;The few who govern are not typical of the masses who are governed;The movement of nonelites to elite positions must be slow and continuous to maintainstability and avoid revolution;Elites share consensus in behalf of the basic values of the social system and the pres

22、ervationof the system;Public policy does not reflect the demands of masses but rather the prevailing values of theelite;Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic masses.社會被分為掌握權(quán)力的少數(shù)人和沒有權(quán)力的多數(shù)人；這些居于統(tǒng)治地位的精英并不是處于被統(tǒng)治地位的大眾的代表；從被統(tǒng)治的非精英階層上升到處于統(tǒng)治地位的精英階層的過程是緩慢的、持續(xù)的，從而 確保社會

23、穩(wěn)定并避免革命的發(fā)生；精英階層對社會制度的基本價值觀以及如何維護這一社會制度的發(fā)展會達成共識；公共政策并不反映大眾的需求，而只反映精英的主導(dǎo)價值觀；精英對待政策的態(tài)度是積極的，而大眾則是冷漠和麻木的；Homoeconomicus 經(jīng)濟人Homopoliticus 政治人P24The definition of public choice theory 公共選擇理論的定義People pursue their self-interest in both politics and the marketplace, but even with selfish motives they can mut

24、ually benefit through collective decision making.不論是在政治中還是在市場中，人們都是追求自我利益的，即使都出于自利的動機，他們也 能夠通過集體決策來實現(xiàn)共同利益。The definition of game theory 博弈理論的定義Game theory is the study of decisions in situations in which two or more rational participants have choices to make and the outcome depends on the choices ma

25、de by each.博弈理論是對特定情境中理性選擇的研究，即兩個或兩個以上的理性參與者進行選擇，而且 自己選擇的結(jié)果還取決于其他人所作出的選擇。Chapter 3 The policymaking processP37Translation fInterest groups may initiate their own policy proposals, perhaps in association with members of Congress of their staffs who share the same interest.利益集團可能會主動提出政策建議，或者與和他們具有共同利益

26、的國會成員聯(lián)合在一起提出 政策建議。P40Media effects媒體的影響Media effects can be categorized asIdentifying issues and setting the agenda for policymakers,Influencing attitudes and values toward policy issues,Changing the behavior of voters san decision makers.為政策制定者確定問題并設(shè)定議程；影響觀眾對政策問題的態(tài)度及價值觀；改變投票人和決策者的行為；Interest groups

27、 influence government policy in a variety of ways利益集團影響政府政策的各類途徑Direct lobbyingCampaign contributions made throughpoliticalactioncommittees(PACs);Interpersonal contactsLitigation designed to force changes inpoliciesthroughthecourt system;Grassroots mobilization efforts to influence Congress and the

28、White House.直接游說；通過政治行動委員會在競選運動中提供捐助；人際接觸；通過法院系統(tǒng)，運用訴訟來施加壓力進行變革；動員草根組織來影響國會和白宮的政策；Democrats民主黨Republicans 共和黨P49Translation fYour representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.你們的代表要奉獻給你們的，不僅僅是他們的勤奮，還有他們的判斷力；

29、如果他們放棄自己 明智的判斷，屈從于你們的意見，則是對你們的背叛，而非服從于你們。Chapter 6 EducationTranslation fSocial science research suggests that educational performance is enhanced when the schools are perceived by children to be extensions or substitutes for their family. Academic achievement and graduation rates improve for all st

30、udents, but especially for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, in schools where there is a high expectation of achievement, an orderly and disciplined environment for learning, an emphasis on basic skills, frequent monitoring of students progress, and teacher-parent interaction and agreement on

31、 values and norms.社會科學(xué)研究表明，當(dāng)學(xué)校被孩子們視為家庭的延伸或替代品時，教學(xué)成績就會提高。對于 所有的學(xué)生，尤其是對于那些處于弱勢地位的學(xué)生來說，學(xué)習(xí)成績和畢業(yè)率的提高需要學(xué)校 對教學(xué)成績有很高的期望，有強調(diào)秩序和紀(jì)律的學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境，強調(diào)對基本技能的掌握，經(jīng)常性 地監(jiān)督學(xué)生的進步情況，教師和家長之間展開互動，并在價值標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方面取得一致。P138Definition of charter schools 特許學(xué)校One way to implement parental choice is the charter school; Community educational gro

32、ups sign a charter with their school district or state educational authority to establish their own school. 解決家長選擇學(xué)校的一種途徑是特許學(xué)校。社區(qū)教育團體與所在學(xué)區(qū)或者州政府的教育部門 簽署一個“特許證”來建立他們自己的學(xué)校。Definition of magnet schools 興趣學(xué)校Another common reform proposal is the magnet school. High schools might choose to specialize, some

33、 emphasizing math and science, others the fine arts, others business, and still others vocational training.另一個常見的改革建議是建立一些興趣學(xué)校。高中可能需要選擇一些主修課程，有些強化數(shù) 學(xué)和自然科學(xué)，有的專修美術(shù)，有的學(xué)習(xí)商業(yè)，有的甚至主攻職業(yè)培訓(xùn)。Definition of educational vouchers 教育券A more controversial version of parental choice involves educational vouchers that

34、 would be given to parents to spend at any school they choose, public or private. State governments would redeem the vouchers submitted by schools by paying specified amounts- perhaps the equivalent of the states per pupil educational spending.關(guān)于家長選擇學(xué)校的一個更有爭論的問題涉及發(fā)給家長的教育券，這種教育券能夠在任何公 立或私立學(xué)校使用。州政府通過支

35、付一定數(shù)量的資金來兌換學(xué)校提交的教育券大約相當(dāng) 于這個州花在每個學(xué)生身上的教育費用。Chapter 11 Civil rightsP242Translation fAll persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the Jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall

36、abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.凡出生或歸化于合眾國并受其管轄的人，皆為合眾國及所居州的公民。任何州不得制定或 施行剝奪合眾國公民的特權(quán)或豁免權(quán)的任何法律；非經(jīng)正當(dāng)法律程序，任何州不得剝奪任何 人的生命、自由或財產(chǎn)；不得否定法律對其管轄范圍內(nèi)的任何人的平等保護。The f