中央電大知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法形成性考核冊作業(yè)1-4答案小抄

1、電大知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法作業(yè)答案小抄作業(yè) 1一、名詞解釋知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法：是調(diào)整因創(chuàng)造、使用智力成果而前產(chǎn)生的，以及在確認(rèn)、保護和行使智力成果所有人的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的過程中所發(fā)生的各種社會關(guān)系的法律規(guī)范的總稱。商品裝潢： 是指在商品或其包裝、容器以及其他附著物上所進行的裝飾。商品商標(biāo)： 是指在商品或者服務(wù)項目上所使用的，用以識別不同生產(chǎn)、經(jīng)營者所生產(chǎn)、制造、加工、揀選或者經(jīng)銷的商品或者提供的服務(wù)，由顯著的文字、圖形、字母、數(shù)字、三維標(biāo)志、顏色組合或者上述要素的組合構(gòu)成的可視性標(biāo)志。18證明商標(biāo)：也稱為保證商標(biāo)，是指由對某種商品或者服務(wù)具有監(jiān)督能力的組織所控制，而由該組織以外的單位或者個人使用于其商品或者服務(wù)，用以證

2、明該商品或者服務(wù)的原產(chǎn)地、原料、制造方法、質(zhì)量或者其他特定品質(zhì)的標(biāo)志。26注冊商標(biāo)：是指經(jīng)國家主管機關(guān)核準(zhǔn)注冊之商標(biāo)。41二、簡答題1.請按你的理解給知識產(chǎn)權(quán)下個定義。我認(rèn)為，知識產(chǎn)權(quán)是權(quán)利人根據(jù)一國的法律，對于自己的智力成果和經(jīng)營管理中所形成的獨創(chuàng)性的標(biāo)志（如商標(biāo)、商號、包裝、裝潢、商譽、地理標(biāo)志、域名等）所享有的專有權(quán)利。2.請試述知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的法律性質(zhì)。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)是一種與物權(quán)、債權(quán)并列的獨立的民事權(quán)利。具體地說，第一，知識產(chǎn)權(quán)具有人身權(quán)和財產(chǎn)權(quán)的雙重性質(zhì)。由于知識產(chǎn)權(quán)所保護的智力成果與人的智力活動密切相關(guān)，因此智力成果的創(chuàng)造者應(yīng)依法享有一定的人身權(quán)，并且這種人身權(quán)是永久的。同時，由于智力成果的

3、使用又能獲得一定的經(jīng)濟利益，所以智力成果的所有人又享有財產(chǎn)權(quán)。第二，由于知識產(chǎn)權(quán)具有人身權(quán)和財產(chǎn)權(quán)的雙重性質(zhì)，又使其具有專有性。第三，時間性和地域性。由于智力成果是一種無形的財產(chǎn)，因而它不能象物和人身那樣理所當(dāng)然地獲得法律的保護，其權(quán)利必須經(jīng)過法律確認(rèn)之后，才能受到保護。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的法律確認(rèn)性決定了它的隨之而來的時間性和地域性。P6-73.請試述知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍有狹義和廣義兩種：2-3（）狹義的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)指傳統(tǒng)意義上的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)。一般包括專利權(quán)、商標(biāo)權(quán)和著作權(quán)，還包括與著作權(quán)相關(guān)的權(quán)利即鄰接權(quán)。（2）廣義的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)有兩個標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：一是世界知識產(chǎn)權(quán)組織公約界定的范圍，包括.著作權(quán)；.鄰接權(quán)；

4、.關(guān)于人類在一切領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的發(fā)明的權(quán)利。主要指人們就專利發(fā)明、實用新型及非專利發(fā)明享有的權(quán)利；.關(guān)于科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)的權(quán)利；.關(guān)于工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計的權(quán)利；.關(guān)于商品商標(biāo)、服務(wù)商標(biāo)、商號及其他商業(yè)標(biāo)記的權(quán)利；.關(guān)于制止不正當(dāng)競爭的權(quán)利；.其他一切來自工業(yè)、科學(xué)及文學(xué)、藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域的智力創(chuàng)作活動所產(chǎn)生的權(quán)利。二是與貿(mào)易有關(guān)的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)協(xié)議界定的范圍，包括：.版權(quán)與鄰接權(quán)；.商標(biāo)權(quán)；.地理標(biāo)志權(quán)；.工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計權(quán)；.專利權(quán)；.集成電路布圖設(shè)計權(quán)；.未公開的信息專有權(quán)，主要是商業(yè)秘密。4.你認(rèn)為知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法有哪些作用。第一，鼓勵創(chuàng)造。為智力成果完成人的權(quán)益提供法律保障，調(diào)動人們從事科學(xué)技術(shù)研究和文學(xué)藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作的積極性和創(chuàng)造

5、性。第二，促進技術(shù)和生產(chǎn)進步。通過許可使用或轉(zhuǎn)讓等方式，使得落后國家的企業(yè)能夠得到先進技術(shù)，從而促進技術(shù)進步和生產(chǎn)進步。第三，促進文明傳播。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法通過對智力成果的公開，促使最新的智力成果在世界范圍內(nèi)傳播交流。第四，保護社會公眾利益。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)法在保護智力成果所有人的權(quán)利的同時，通過對知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的限制，來實現(xiàn)智力成果所有人與社會之間的利益的均衡。三、案例分析1.根據(jù)我國商標(biāo)法，商標(biāo)權(quán)的取得實行注冊取得的原則，而不是使用取得的原則，為保護這一具有巨大預(yù)期收益的品牌，建議對其進行商標(biāo)注冊。并且在商標(biāo)注冊的過程中，我國實行申請在先的原則，輔這以使用在先的辦法，故該公司應(yīng)盡快提交注冊申請。2.注冊的程序

6、。步驟依次為：申請、形式審查、實質(zhì)審查、公告、商標(biāo)異議、核準(zhǔn)注冊。3.方案。涉及商標(biāo)設(shè)計，是使用文字，還是文字與圖形、字母、數(shù)字、三維標(biāo)志等的組合；是否需要注冊防御商標(biāo)、聯(lián)合商標(biāo)。4.如何防止權(quán)益被侵害。權(quán)益被侵害的方式有合法的侵害和非法的侵害兩種。無論是合法的侵害，不是非法的侵害，都要依靠商標(biāo)所有權(quán)人對同一種或者類似商品上的商標(biāo)保持足夠的關(guān)注，以便及時發(fā)現(xiàn)相同或者近似的商標(biāo)被他人注冊或者使用。合法的侵害表現(xiàn)為他人在同一種或者類似商品上的申請注冊相同或者近似的商標(biāo)。從而造成合法的混淆。對這種侵害，如果商標(biāo)所有權(quán)人在公告期間發(fā)現(xiàn)，可以通過異議程序向商標(biāo)局提出異議，要求商標(biāo)局不授予申請人注冊商標(biāo)；

7、如果商標(biāo)所有權(quán)人發(fā)現(xiàn)時，易引起混淆的商標(biāo)已被他人注冊，可在該混淆商標(biāo)注冊的五年內(nèi)，向商標(biāo)評審委員會申請注冊商標(biāo)爭議裁定，由商標(biāo)評審委員會依法作出裁決，撤銷該混淆商標(biāo)注冊。非法的侵害，即商標(biāo)侵權(quán)，主要表現(xiàn)為使用侵權(quán)、銷售侵權(quán)、標(biāo)識侵權(quán)、反向假冒侵權(quán)和其他侵權(quán)。處理方式有協(xié)商解決、行政處理、行政調(diào)解、訴訟解決等。作業(yè)2王某在黑龍江省齊齊哈爾市于1990年4月1日向中國專利局受理處有幾名為“保溫鞋”的實用新型申請文件，郵戳日為1990年4分月1日，中國專利局受理處收到該申請文件的日期為1990年4月6日。李某在北京于1990年4月2日向中國專利局額受理處直接遞交一份與王某同樣的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造的專利申請文件

8、，也名為“保溫鞋”的實用新型專利申請。問：如何處理？為什么？答：專利局應(yīng)確定王某為專利申請人。因為我國的專利申請實行先申請原則，即兩個以上主題相同的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造分別向?qū)＠痔岢鰧＠暾埖模瑢＠麢?quán)授予最先申請的人。該原則以申請日作為申請時間先后的判斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。專利局收到專利申請文件之日為申請日，如果申請文件是郵寄的，以寄出的郵戳日為申請日。本案中，王某以郵寄方式送達申請，其申請日為1990年4月1日。李某直接送達，時間為1990年4月2日。王某的申請日在先，因而應(yīng)確定其為申請人資格。作業(yè)3故宮博物院為組織活動于1994年起組織人員從院藏文物中精選900多套國家一、二級珍貴文物進行攝影、測量、編寫說明文字

9、?；顒雍笥勺辖浅霭嫔绾拖愀凵虅?wù)印書館分別出版。1999年某出版社出版了由天津某大學(xué)教授編寫的宋清瓷器圖錄一書，均通過新華書店公開發(fā)行銷售。共計銷售1萬冊，每冊定價49元，成本20萬元，出版社獲利9萬元。2001年故宮博物院向法院起訴，告出版社侵權(quán)。稱其非法使用原告圖片790張，抄襲文字圖片說明，侵犯了其著作權(quán)中的使用權(quán)，取得報酬權(quán)和保護作品完整權(quán)。并稱其對社會出租圖片資料每張版權(quán)費400元，加工制作費400元，其作品系珍貴文物故要求按每張800元乘2倍賠償。要求：1 你作為故宮博物院代理人寫一份代理意見。2 你作為出版社律師寫一份答辯狀。代理詞審判長、審判員：北京強國律師事務(wù)所接受本案原告故

10、宮博物院的委托，指派我作為其代理人參加本案訴訟活動。經(jīng)了解案情和收集證據(jù)，我認(rèn)為，原告被告侵犯其著作權(quán)，事實清楚，證據(jù)確鑿?，F(xiàn)就本案發(fā)表如下代理意見。故宮博物院為組織活動，于1994年起組織人員從院藏文物中精選900多套國家一、二級珍貴文物進行攝影、測量、編寫說明文字?；顒雍笥勺辖浅霭嫔绾拖愀凵虅?wù)印書館分別出版。該書由原告獨立完成，由原告享有全部著作權(quán)。現(xiàn)有該書原稿、出版合同、印刷版圖書可以佐證，見原告提供的證據(jù)清單的第1、2、3項。被告于1999年，出版了由天津某大學(xué)教授編寫的宋清瓷器圖錄一書，并通過新華書店公開發(fā)行銷售，共計銷售1萬冊。該書在未經(jīng)原告許可的情況下，以營利為目的，非法使用原

11、告圖片790張，抄襲文字圖片說明，侵犯了其著作權(quán)中的使用權(quán)，取得報酬權(quán)和保護作品完整權(quán)。證據(jù)見原告提供的證據(jù)清單的第、4、5項。根據(jù)我國著作權(quán)的相關(guān)法律法規(guī)的規(guī)定，請法院依法判決被告立即停止侵權(quán)行為，向原告賠禮道歉，并賠償經(jīng)濟損失1294000元（直接損失：原告對社會出租圖片資料每張版權(quán)費400元，加工制作費400元，其作品系珍貴文物故要求按每張800元乘2倍賠償，即800*2*7901264000元；合理開支30000元，包括律師費、調(diào)查費、取證費等）。以上代理意見，敬請合議庭仔細斟酌研究并予以采納。謝謝！ 被告代理人：北京強國律師事務(wù)所律師：林肯 二OO四年六月十六日答辯狀答辯人：名稱：地

12、址：電話：法定代表人：職務(wù)：委托代理人：姓名：性別：年齡：民族：職務(wù)：工作單位：住所：電話：因故宮博物院訴我單位侵犯其著作權(quán)一案，答辯如下：原告訴稱被告侵犯其著作權(quán)，訴訟理由不能成立。要求被告向原告賠禮道歉，并賠償經(jīng)濟損失，缺少法律依據(jù)。原告訴稱，被告于1999年出版的宋清瓷器圖錄一書，非法使用原告圖片790張，抄襲文字圖片說明，侵犯了其著作權(quán)中的使用權(quán)、取得報酬權(quán)和保護作品完整權(quán)。事實上，被告的確在1999年出版了宋清瓷器圖錄一書。但被告并沒有侵犯原告訴稱的著作權(quán)，因為被告出版宋清瓷器圖錄一書，是在取得了其作者天津某大學(xué)教授的同意并簽訂了出版合同，即取得其著作權(quán)人的授權(quán)之后進行的。根據(jù)該出版

13、合同，天津某大學(xué)教授保證其對宋清瓷器圖錄一書享有完全的著作權(quán)。因而，被告的出版品，有著合法的著作權(quán)來源，其出版行為是合法的。如果說，天津某大學(xué)教授對宋清瓷器圖錄一書的著作權(quán)有瑕疵，被告是不知情的，被告不應(yīng)承擔(dān)責(zé)任。因為，著作權(quán)是一種民事權(quán)利，認(rèn)定侵犯著作權(quán)的行為的四個構(gòu)成要件中包括行為人主觀上有過錯。而本案中，被告盡到了合理地審查著作權(quán)和取得出版授權(quán)的義務(wù)，主觀上沒有侵犯原告訴稱的著作權(quán)的故意或過失，即沒有主觀上的過錯，其行為不構(gòu)成侵權(quán)。根據(jù)著作權(quán)法第五十二條規(guī)定：復(fù)制品的出版者、制作者不能證明其出版、制作有合法授權(quán)的，應(yīng)承擔(dān)法律責(zé)任。而本案中，被告可以提供合法的出版授權(quán)。因而，被告的行為不構(gòu)

14、成侵權(quán)。故根據(jù)民法、民事訴訟法、著作權(quán)法的相關(guān)規(guī)定，被告請法院依法駁回原告的訴訟請求，并由其承擔(dān)全部訴訟費用。此致人民法院答辯人：（蓋章）法定代表人：（簽章）年月日附：答辯狀副本份。其它證明文件份。作業(yè)4一、名詞解釋1.知識產(chǎn)權(quán)：“知識產(chǎn)權(quán)”一詞，英文為Intellectual Property 。知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍，有廣義和狹義兩種。廣義的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)范圍，有廣義和狹義兩種。廣義的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)范圍，為兩個主要的保護知識產(chǎn)權(quán)的國際公約所界定。1967年簽訂的世界知識產(chǎn)權(quán)組織公約指出，知識產(chǎn)權(quán)應(yīng)包括下列權(quán)利：關(guān)于文學(xué)、藝術(shù)和科學(xué)作品的權(quán)利；關(guān)于表演藝術(shù)家的表演、錄音和廣播的權(quán)利；關(guān)于人類在一切領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的發(fā)明的

15、權(quán)利；關(guān)于科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)享有的權(quán)利；關(guān)于工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計的權(quán)利；關(guān)于商品商標(biāo)、服務(wù)商標(biāo)、商號及其他商業(yè)標(biāo)記的權(quán)利；關(guān)于制止不正當(dāng)競爭的權(quán)利；其他一切來自工業(yè)、科學(xué)及文學(xué)、藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域的智力創(chuàng)作活動所產(chǎn)生的權(quán)利。1995年1月1日成立的世界貿(mào)易組織（WTO）的與貿(mào)易有關(guān)的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)協(xié)議規(guī)定的范圍，包括：（1）版權(quán)與鄰接權(quán)（2）商標(biāo)權(quán)（3）地理標(biāo)志權(quán)（4）工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計觀（5）專利權(quán)（6）集成電路布圖設(shè)計權(quán)（7）未公開的信息專有權(quán)，主要是商業(yè)秘密權(quán)狹義的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)，指傳統(tǒng)意義上的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)，即專利權(quán)、商標(biāo)權(quán)、著作權(quán)。2.商標(biāo)權(quán)：又叫商標(biāo)專用權(quán)，是指商標(biāo)注冊人對其注冊商標(biāo)所享有的權(quán)利。P503.專利權(quán)：就一項發(fā)明創(chuàng)造

16、，由申請人向國家專利局提出專利申請，經(jīng)專利局依法審查核準(zhǔn)后，向申請人授予的在規(guī)定的時間內(nèi)對該項發(fā)明創(chuàng)造所享有的獨占權(quán)。P1324.著作權(quán)：又稱版權(quán)，有廣義與狹義之分。狹義的著作權(quán)，是指文學(xué)、藝術(shù)和科學(xué)作品的作者對其作品依法享有的專有權(quán)利。廣義的著作權(quán)，除了狹義的著作權(quán)外，還包括著作鄰接權(quán)，即出版者、表演者、錄制者、廣播電臺、電視臺等作品傳播者對其傳播的作品依法享有的權(quán)利。5.侵犯商業(yè)秘密行為：是指為了竟?fàn)幓騻€人的目的，通過不正當(dāng)方法獲取，披露或使用權(quán)利人商業(yè)秘密的行為。二、填空1.國家知識產(chǎn)權(quán)局2.自愿注冊原則和強制注冊原則3.商標(biāo)國際注冊或辦理逐一國家注冊4.個案認(rèn)定或被動認(rèn)定5. 新穎性、

17、創(chuàng)造性、實用性6.形狀、圖案、色彩、其結(jié)合7.責(zé)任，視為作者8.許可，報酬，許可，報酬 9.作者三、選擇題1.AB 2.B 3. BCD 4.ABD 5.ABCD 6.AD 7.D 8.ABCD四、簡答1.簡述申請注冊的商標(biāo)應(yīng)當(dāng)具備的條件。（1） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)應(yīng)當(dāng)具備法定的構(gòu)成要素（2） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)應(yīng)當(dāng)具備顯著性（3） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)不得是法律禁止作為商標(biāo)使用的標(biāo)志（4） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)不得是不能作為商標(biāo)注冊的標(biāo)志（5） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)不得與他人在同一種或者服務(wù)上已經(jīng)注冊或者初步審定的商標(biāo)相同或者近似（6） 申請注冊的商標(biāo)不得與被撤銷或者注銷未滿一年的注冊商標(biāo)相同或者近似2.簡述授予發(fā)明

18、專利權(quán)和實用新型專利權(quán)的實質(zhì)條件（1） 新穎性：新穎性，是指在申請日以前沒有同樣的發(fā)明或者實用新型在國內(nèi)外出版物上公開發(fā)表過、在國內(nèi)公開使用過或者以其他方式為公眾所知，也沒有同樣的發(fā)明或者實用新型由他人向國務(wù)院專利行政部門提出過申請并且記載在申請日以后公布的專利申請文件中。（2） 創(chuàng)造性，是指同申請日以前已有的技術(shù)相比，該發(fā)明有突出的實質(zhì)性特點和顯著的進步，該實用新型有實質(zhì)性特點和進步。（3） 實用性，是指該發(fā)明或者實用新型能夠制造或者使用，并且能夠產(chǎn)生積極效果。3.簡述著作權(quán)人哪些著作人身權(quán)利。（1） 發(fā)表權(quán)：決定作品是否公之于眾的權(quán)利。（2） 署名權(quán)：表明作者身分，作品上署名的權(quán)利。（3）

19、 修改權(quán)：修改或者授權(quán)他人修改作品的權(quán)利。（4） 保護作品完整權(quán)：保護作品不受歪曲、篡改的權(quán)利。五、論述題試分析社會上發(fā)生非法剽竊他人新技術(shù)的原因，并論述保護專利權(quán)的重要性和應(yīng)采取的保護措施。一、首先，新技術(shù)是一種可以創(chuàng)造效益的財產(chǎn)，這是有些人非法剽竊他人新技術(shù)的內(nèi)在動因。其次，新技術(shù)是一種智力成果，開發(fā)一項新技術(shù)既有技術(shù)障礙，又要投入大量成本，正是由于這樣，有些人無力自己開發(fā)，就進行剽竊。再次，新技術(shù)開發(fā)者沒有將其技術(shù)向?qū)＠芾頇C關(guān)申請專利，不能取得專利法律的保護。最后，我國專利法實施的時間較短，全社會的專利意識不強，這是新技術(shù)經(jīng)常被剽竊的社會原因。二、由此可見，實施嚴(yán)格有效的專利制度，對于

20、保護發(fā)明人的權(quán)利，保護人民發(fā)明創(chuàng)造的積極性，對于促進技術(shù)進步、經(jīng)濟發(fā)展、技術(shù)交流，都有非常重要的作用和意義。三、要對專利進行有效的保護：1. 從外部環(huán)境來說，國家要制定完善的專利法律制度，并向全社會宣傳普及專利法規(guī)，提高全社會的專利法律意識。2. 作為發(fā)明創(chuàng)造者，要及時將自己的智力成果申請專利保護。在取得專利后，要善于運用法律武器，或通過行政救濟途徑，或通過司法救濟途徑，維護自己的合法權(quán)利，打擊各種侵權(quán)行為。作為社會成員，要遵法、守法，避免侵犯他人的專利權(quán)利。當(dāng)然，遇到專利權(quán)人濫用專利權(quán)的行為，也要善于運用法律武器維護自己的合法權(quán)請您刪除一下內(nèi)容，O(_)O謝謝！2016年中央電大期末復(fù)習(xí)考試

21、小抄大全，電大期末考試必備小抄，電大考試必過小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechan

22、ism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release.

23、When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signa

24、ls are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmissio

25、n involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor e

26、nd plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a comma

27、nd is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transm

28、ission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerv

29、e fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brai

30、n at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and som

31、e are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types o

32、f acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotin

33、ic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role i

34、n skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline

35、 acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse

36、to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon acti

37、vation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transdu

38、ction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydr

39、olysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the ca

40、se of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholineste

41、rase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action

42、painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, an

43、d surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established h

44、im as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned

45、to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract express

46、ionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the ex

47、pressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use o

48、f huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the

49、 attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Scie

50、nce and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station,

51、man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understan

52、ding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its

53、most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a p

54、lane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or s

55、ystem of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; tech

56、nically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2

57、) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given no

58、t by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, parabo

59、loid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and