克魯格曼國際經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)理論與政策第六版課后習(xí)題答案

1、CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION Chapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and Money CHAPTER OVE

2、RVIEW The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, th

3、e covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the ef

4、fects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad. The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the caus

5、es and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 199

6、4; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and spread to many countries around the globe and the Econ

7、omic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable

8、 students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These t

9、hemes include: 1) the gains from trade; 2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring tod

10、ay come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presented throughout the text.CHAPTER 2 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODELChapter Organizat

11、ionThe Concept of Comparative AdvantageA One-Factor EconomyProduction PossibilitiesRelative Prices and SupplyTrade in a One-Factor WorldBox: Comparative Advantage in Practice: The Case of Babe RuthDetermining the Relative Price After TradeThe Gains from TradeA Numerical ExampleBox: The Losses from N

12、on-TradeRelative WagesMisconceptions About Comparative AdvantageProductivity and CompetitivenessThe Pauper Labor ArgumentExploitationBox: Do Wages Reflect Productivity?Comparative Advantage with Many GoodsSetting Up the ModelRelative Wages and SpecializationDetermining the Relative Wage with a Multi

13、good ModelAdding Transport Costs and Non-Traded GoodsEmpirical Evidence on the Ricardian ModelSummaryCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe Ricardian model provides an introduction to international trade theory. This most basic model of trade involves two countries, two goods, and one factor of production, labor. Diff

14、erences in relative labor productivity across countries give rise to international trade. This Ricardian model, simple as it is, generates important insights concerning comparative advantage and the gains from trade. These insights are necessary foundations for the more complex models presented in l

15、ater chapters. The text exposition begins with the examination of the production possibility frontier and the relative prices of goods for one country. The production possibility frontier is linear because of the assumption of constant returns to scale for labor, the sole factor of production. The o

16、pportunity cost of one good in terms of the other equals the price ratio since prices equal costs, costs equal unit labor requirements times wages, and wages are equal in each industry.After defining these concepts for a single country, a second country is introduced which has different relative uni

17、t labor requirements. General equilibrium relative supply and demand curves are developed. This analysis demonstrates that at least one country will specialize in production. The gains from trade are then demonstrated with a graph and a numerical example. The intuition of indirect production, that i

18、s producing a good by producing the good for which a country enjoys a comparative advantage and then trading for the other good, is an appealing concept to emphasize when presenting the gains from trade argument. Students are able to apply the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage to analyze thr

19、ee misconceptions about the advantages of free trade. Each of the three myths represents a common argument against free trade and the flaws of each can be demonstrated in the context of examples already developed in the chapter.While the initial intuitions are developed in the context of a two good

20、model, it is straightforward to extend the model to describe trade patterns when there are N goods. This analysis can be used to explain why a small country specializes in the production of a few goods while a large country specializes in the production of many goods. The chapter ends by discussing

21、the role that transport costs play in making some goods non-traded. The appendix presents a Ricardian model with a continuum of goods. The effect of productivity growth in a foreign country on home country welfare can be investigated with this model. The common argument that foreign productivity adv

22、ances worsen the welfare of the domestic economy is shown to be fallacious in the context of this model.ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400 (1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).b. The opportunity cost of

23、apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. Labor mobility ensures a

24、common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages a

25、re equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1). b. The world

26、 relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplie

27、d at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supp

28、ly curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity. 3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5),

29、 (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2). b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relati

30、ve price is 2.c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country.d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. T

31、rade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade.4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supp

32、ly schedule such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity

33、cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade. 5. This answer is identical to that in 3. The amount of effective labor has not changed since the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the producti

34、vity of labor.6. This statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter. The point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. The box in the chapter provides data which s

35、hows the strong connection between wages and productivity. Koreas low wage presumably reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. As the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will rais

36、e, not lower, its standard of living. 7. The problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed for determining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for

37、the service sector). It is not enough to compare only services unit labor requirements. If als als*, Home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. While this demonstrates that the United States has an absolute advantage in services, this is neither a necessary nor a sufficient conditi

38、on for determining comparative advantage. For this determination, the industry ratios are also required. The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.8. While Japanese workers may earn the equivalent

39、wages of U.S. workers, the purchasing power of their income is one-third less. This implies that although w=w* (more or less), p z, where n and n* are as defined in the appendix. The balanced current account (z=1) Marshall-Lerner condition is a special case of this general condition. A depreciation

40、is less likely to improve the current account the larger its initial deficit when n* is less than 1. Conversely, a depreciation is more likely to cause an improvement in the current account the larger its initial surplus, again for values of n* less than 1. 0 1 2 A A A A D D D D Y E A” A” Figure 16-

41、712. If imports constitute part of the CPI then a fall in import prices due to an appreciation of the currency will cause the overall price level to decline. The fall in the price level raises real balances. As shown in diagram 16-7, the shift in the output market curve from DD to DD is matched by a

42、n inward shift of the asset market equilibrium curve. If import prices are not in the CPI and the currency appreciation does not affect the price level, the asset market curve shifts to AA and there is no effect on output, even in the short run. If, however, the overall price level falls due to the

43、appreciation, the shift in the asset market curve is smaller, to AA, and the initial equilibrium point, point 1, has higher output than the original equilibrium at point 0. Over time, prices rise when output exceeds its long-run level, causing a shift in the asset market equilibrium curve from AA to

44、 AA, which returns output to its long-run level. 13. An increase in the risk premium shifts the asset market curve out and to the right, all else equal. A permanent increase in government spending shifts the asset market curve in and to the right since it causes the expected future exchange rate to

45、appreciate. A permanent rise in government spending also causes the goods market curve to shift down and to the right since it raises aggregate demand. In the case where there is no risk premium, the new intersection of the DD and AA curve after a permanent increase in government spending is at the

46、full-employment level of output since this is the only level consistent with no change in the long-run price level. In the case discussed in this question, however, the nominal interest rate rises with the increase in the risk premium. Therefore, output must also be higher than the original level of

47、 full-employment output; as compared to the case in the text, the AA curve does not shift by as much so output rises.14. Suppose output is initially at full employment. A permanent change in fiscal policy will cause both the AA and DD curves to shift such that there is no effect on output. Now consi

48、der the case where the economy is not initially at full employment. A permanent change in fiscal policy shifts the AA curve because of its effect on the long-run exchange rate and shifts the DD curve because of its effect on expenditures. There is no reason, however, for output to remain constant in

49、 this case since its initial value is not equal to its long-run level, and thus an argument like the one in the text that shows the neutrality of permanent fiscal policy on output does not carry through. In fact, we might expect that an economy that begins in a recession (below Yf) would be stimulat

50、ed back towards Yf by a positive permanent fiscal shock. If Y does rise permanently, we would expect a permanent drop in the price level (since M is constant). This fall in P in the long run would move AA and DD both out. We could also consider the fact that in the case where we begin at full employ

51、ment and there is no impact on Y, AA was shifting back due to the real appreciation necessitated by the increase in demand for home products (as a result of the increase in G). If there is a permanent increase in Y, there has also been a relative supply increase which can offset the relative demand

52、increase and weaken the need for a real appreciation. Because of this, AA would shift back by less. We do not know the exact effect without knowing how far the lines originally move (the size of the shock), but we do know that without the restriction that Y is unchanged in the long run, the argument

53、 in the text collapses and we can have both short run and long run effects on Y.15. The text shows output cannot rise following a permanent fiscal expansion if output is initially at its long-run level. Using a similar argument, we can show that output cannot fall from its initial long-run level fol

54、lowing a permanent fiscal expansion. A permanent fiscal expansion cannot have an effect on the long-run price level since there is no effect on the money supply or the long-run values of the domestic interest rate and output. When output is initially at its long-run level, R equals R*, Y equals Yf a

55、nd real balances are unchanged in the short run. If output did fall, there would be excess money supply and the domestic interest rate would have to fall, but this would imply an expected appreciation of the currency since the interest differential (R - R*) would then be negative. This, however, cou

56、ld only occur if the currency appreciates in real terms as output rises and the economy returns to long-run equilibrium. This appreciation, however, would cause further unemployment and output would not rise and return back to Yf. As with the example in the text, this contradiction is only resolved

57、if output remains at Yf. FURTHER READINGSVictor Argy and Michael G. Porter. The Forward Exchange Market and the Effects of Domestic and External Disturbances under Alternative Exchange Rate Systems. International Monetary Fund Staff Papers 19 (November 1972), pp.503-532.Victor Argy and Joanne Salop.

58、 Price and Output Effects of Monetary and Fiscal Policies Under Flexible Exchange Rates. International Monetary Fund Staff Papers 26 (June 1979) pp. 224-256.C. Fred Bergsten. International Adjustment and Financing: The Lessons of 1985-1991. Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 19

59、91.Ralph C. Bryant et al., eds. Empirical Macroeconomics for Interdependent Economies. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1988.Rudiger Dornbusch. Exchange Rate Expectations and Monetary Policy. Journal of International Economics 6 (August 1976) pp. 231-244.Rudiger Dornbusch and Paul Krugman. F

60、lexible Exchange Rates in the Short Run. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 7 (3:1976), pp. 537-575.Peter Hooper and Jaime Marquez. “Exchange Rates, Prices and External Adjustment in the United States and Japan,” in Peter B. Kenen, ed., Understanding Interdependence: The Macroeconomics of the Ope