最新英語語言學筆記

1、LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and LinguisticsWhat is language?Different definitions of languageLanguage is a systemwhose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)Language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and co

2、nstructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of the

3、m have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language.As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationFeatures of human languageCreativityLanguage provides opportunities for sending messages th

4、at have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.DualityLanguage contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Certain sounds or sequences of s

5、ounds stand for certain meanings.Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech soundsor sequences of speech sounds.ArbitrarinessThe relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.DisplacementThere is no limit in time or sp

6、ace for language.Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.Cultural transmissionCulture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.Language is a way of transmitting culture.InterchangeabilityAll members of a speech community can send and re

7、ceive messages.ReflexivityHuman languages can be used to describe themselves.The language used to talk about language is callem eta-languageWhat is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of languag eObserving & questioningFormulating hypothesesVerifying the hypothesesProposing a theoryB

8、ranches of linguisticsInternal branches: intra-disciplinary divisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternal branches: inter-disciplinary divisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsApplied linguisticsComputational linguisticsNeurolinguisticsFeatures of linguisticsDescriptiveDeal

9、ing with spoken languageSynchronicChapter 2 PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is termed asthe study of speech sounds.Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics - the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics - the physical properties of speech soundsAuditory phonetics - the perceptive me

10、chanism of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the cavities?Oral cavityPharyngeal cavityNasal cavityTranscription of speech soundsUnits of representationSegments (the individual sounds)P

11、honetic symbolsThe widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spell

12、ing system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Description of speech soundsDescription of English consonantsGeneral feature: obstructionCriteria of consonant d

13、escriptionPlaces of articulationManners of articulationVoicing of articulationPlaces of articulationThis refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.Bilabial: p b m wLabiodental: f vInterdental:Alveolar: t d s z l n rPalatal: t d jVelar: k gGlottal: hManners of ar

14、ticulationThis refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.Stops: p b t d k gFricatives: s z f v hAffricates: t d Liquids: l rGlides: w jNasals: m nVoicing of articulationThis refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.V

15、oiced soundsVoiceless soundsDescription of English vowelsGeneral feature: without obstructionCriteria of vowel descriptionPart of the tongue that is raisedFrontCentralBackExtent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palateHighMidLowKind of opening made at the lipsPosition of the soft pal

16、ateSingle vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsChapter 3 PhonologyWhat is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patternsPhonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questio

17、ns.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonemes and allophonesA phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distincti

18、ve feature.The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.We use allophones to realize phonemes.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minim

19、al pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic

20、 alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution - allophonesSounds that are not found in the same pos

21、ition are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are sa

22、id to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.Phonological rulesPhonemes are abstract sound uni

23、ts stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as r

24、ules.There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.+voiced +consonant -voiced/卜voiced +consonant_-voiced +bilabial +stop - unaspirated/-voiced +alveolar +fricative_Suprasegmental featuresFeatures that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments

25、are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.If a word has three or more syllab

26、les, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance

27、 meaning. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise. ToneTone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.The same sequence of segmentscan be different words if utt

28、ered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.Chapter 4 MorphologyWhat is morphology?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is defined as the study of the internal stru

29、cture and the formation of wordsMorphemes and allomorphsThe smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.“zero ” form of a morpheme andpletivesSome countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, som

30、e regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one“zero form “ oe m morphSome verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not r

31、elated in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.Free and bound morphemesSome morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to fre

32、e morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are theafixes (prefixes and suffixes).Infl

33、exional and derivational morphemesInflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs. Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.English affixes are divided into pre

34、fixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Conclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBo

35、und morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixes: -s,se r, -est, -ing, -ed, -sSuffixesFormation of new wordsDerivationDerivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For ex

36、ample, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking,

37、 affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.CompoundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.The majority of English co

38、mpounds are the combination of words from the three classes - nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.ConversionConversion

39、is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.ClippingClipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasi

40、ons.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by

41、putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students - plike” (a kind of machi

42、ne that is like both a plane and a bike).Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root v

43、ision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix -sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the -sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbteleviseAcronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial letters of

44、all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals

45、 or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is espe

46、cially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.Chapter 5 SyntaxWhat is syntax?The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means "arrangement " or“setting out together” .Traditionally, it refers to the b

47、ranch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to show connexions of meaning within the sentence.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentencesWhat is a sentence?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A s

48、entenceis a sequenceof words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.A sequencecan be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakersof a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.Syntactic categoriesA syntactic category is

49、a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:The child found the knife.A policeman found the knife.The man who just left herefound the knife.He found the knife.All the italicized parts belong to the same

50、 syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The noun phrasesin these sentencesfunction as subject.The knife also a noun phrase, functions as object.Structural grammarStructural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different gr

51、ammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.Form classForm class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar. Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the s

52、ame form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every, etc. can be placed before nouns in English sentences.These words fall into one form class.These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution. Immediate constituent (IC) analysisStructural grammar is characterized by a top-down p

53、rocess of analysis.A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the sentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediat

54、e constituent analysis.Examples:Old men and women: old | men and women, old | men | and women The | little | girl | speaks | French.In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of se

55、ntence structure.I will suggest | that this | in itself reflects | a particular ideology | about gender | that deserves to be re-examined.Two advantages of IC analysis:It can analyze some ambiguities.It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.Transformational-generative (TG) grammarBackground

56、and the goal of TG grammarChomsky (1957) - grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.Adequacy of observationAdequacy of descriptionAdequacy of explanationWriting a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules - phrase structure rules and transformation rules which are followed by speakers of the

57、 language.TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences. Syntactic categoriesNoun Phrase (NP)Verb Phrase (VP)Sentence (S)Determiner (Det)Adjective (Adj)Pronoun (Pro)Verb (V)Auxiliary Verb (Aux)Prepositional Phrase (PP)Adverb (Adv)Phrase structure (PS) rulesS f NP VP(Det) (Adj) NNP -ProVP f (Aux) V (NP) (PP)PP - P NPTree diagrams (omit)Recursion and the infinitude of languageS contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories