胡壯麟語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程筆記、重點(diǎn)

1、語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程重難點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)提示 第一章  語(yǔ)言的性質(zhì) 語(yǔ)言的定義：語(yǔ)言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多產(chǎn)性、移位、文化傳遞和互換性）；語(yǔ)言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、詢問(wèn)、表達(dá)主觀感情、喚起對(duì)方的感情和言語(yǔ)行為）；語(yǔ)言的起源（神授說(shuō)，人造說(shuō)，進(jìn)化說(shuō)）等。 第二章      語(yǔ)言學(xué) 語(yǔ)言學(xué)定義；研究語(yǔ)言的四大原則（窮盡、一致、簡(jiǎn)潔、客觀）；語(yǔ)言學(xué)的基本概念（口語(yǔ)與書(shū)面語(yǔ)、共時(shí)與歷時(shí)、語(yǔ)言與言學(xué)、語(yǔ)言能力與言行運(yùn)用、語(yǔ)言潛勢(shì)與語(yǔ)言行為）；普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)的分支（語(yǔ)音、音位、語(yǔ)法、句法、語(yǔ)義）；語(yǔ)言學(xué)的應(yīng)用（語(yǔ)言學(xué)與語(yǔ)言教學(xué)、語(yǔ)言與社會(huì)、語(yǔ)言與文字、語(yǔ)

2、言與心理學(xué)、人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)、神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)、數(shù)理語(yǔ)言學(xué)、計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)）等。 第三章      語(yǔ)音學(xué) 發(fā)音器官的英文名稱；英語(yǔ)輔音的發(fā)音部位和發(fā)音方法；語(yǔ)音學(xué)的定義；發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；元音及輔音的分類；嚴(yán)式與寬式標(biāo)音等。 第四章     音位學(xué) 音位理論；最小對(duì)立體；自由變異；互補(bǔ)分布；語(yǔ)音的相似性；區(qū)別性特征；超語(yǔ)段音位學(xué)；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音、句子重音、音高和語(yǔ)調(diào)）等。 第五章    詞法學(xué) 詞法的定義；曲折詞與派生詞；構(gòu)詞法（合成與派生）；詞素的定義；詞素變體；自由詞素；粘著詞素（詞

3、根，詞綴和詞干）等。 第六章    詞匯學(xué) 詞的定義；語(yǔ)法詞與詞匯詞；變?cè)~與不變?cè)~；封閉詞與開(kāi)放詞；詞的辨認(rèn)；習(xí)語(yǔ)與搭配。 第七章  句法 句法的定義；句法關(guān)系；結(jié)構(gòu)；成分；直接成分分析法；并列結(jié)構(gòu)與從屬結(jié)構(gòu)；句子成分；范疇（性，數(shù)，格）；一致；短語(yǔ)，從句，句子擴(kuò)展等。 第八章   語(yǔ)義學(xué) 語(yǔ)義的定義；語(yǔ)義的有關(guān)理論；意義種類（傳統(tǒng)、功能、語(yǔ)用）；里奇的語(yǔ)義分類；詞匯意義關(guān)系（同義、反義、下義）；句子語(yǔ)義關(guān)系。 第九章   語(yǔ)言變化 語(yǔ)言的發(fā)展變化（詞匯變化、語(yǔ)音書(shū)寫(xiě)文字、語(yǔ)法變化、語(yǔ)義變化）； 第十章 

4、 語(yǔ)言、思維與文化 語(yǔ)言與文化的定義；薩丕爾-沃夫假說(shuō)；語(yǔ)言與思維的關(guān)系；語(yǔ)言與文化的關(guān)系；中西文化的異同。 第十一章  語(yǔ)用學(xué) 語(yǔ)用學(xué)的定義；語(yǔ)義學(xué)與語(yǔ)用學(xué)的區(qū)別；語(yǔ)境與意義；言語(yǔ)行為理論（言內(nèi)行為、言外行為和言后行為）；合作原則。 1. 語(yǔ)言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness雙層結(jié)構(gòu)duality 既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語(yǔ)言可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西文化傳播性cultural transmission 2。語(yǔ)言的功能：傳達(dá)信息功能informative人濟(jì)功能：interpersonal

5、行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂(lè)功能recreatinal元語(yǔ)言功能 metalingual3. 語(yǔ)言學(xué)linguistics：包括六個(gè)分支語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonetics音位學(xué) phonology形態(tài)學(xué) Morphology句法學(xué) syntax語(yǔ)義學(xué) semantics語(yǔ)用學(xué) pragmatics4. 現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出語(yǔ)言學(xué)中最重要的概念對(duì)之一：語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ)language and parole ，語(yǔ)言之語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)的整體，言語(yǔ)則只待某個(gè)個(gè)體在實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用環(huán)境中說(shuō)出的具體話語(yǔ)5. 語(yǔ)法創(chuàng)始人：Noa

6、m Chomsky提出概念語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same

7、thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before. 2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is

8、 _a informative b. phaticc. directive d. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by _a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomsky c. hallidayd anomymous第二節(jié) 語(yǔ)音學(xué)1.發(fā)音器官由聲帶the

9、vocal cords和三個(gè)回聲腔組成 2.輔音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞輔音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分類標(biāo)準(zhǔn)舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音 diphthongs,有元音過(guò)渡 vo

10、wel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies _.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds 2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in _a. the place of articulation b.the obstruction

11、 f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following i

12、s not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicing b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are _a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in _a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vi

13、bration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in _a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三節(jié) 音位學(xué) phonology1.音位學(xué)與語(yǔ)音學(xué)的區(qū)別：語(yǔ)音學(xué)著重于語(yǔ)音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學(xué)則強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能，其對(duì)象是某一種語(yǔ)言中可以用來(lái)組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音。 2.音位phoneme：最小語(yǔ)音單位3.音位變體allophones:讀音差別4.對(duì)比性分布：如果兩個(gè)音段

14、出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，而且產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞，5.互補(bǔ)性分布；如果兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系，如送氣p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首6.音節(jié)syllable，分為節(jié)首o(hù)nset，節(jié)峰peak，節(jié)尾coda7.輔音群:一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過(guò)三個(gè)福音，節(jié)尾不能超過(guò)4個(gè)8.最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)minimal pairsI. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communica

15、tion.2. What is Linguistics(語(yǔ)言學(xué))Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(區(qū)分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原則) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范疇) and uses that speech does not

16、 have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(說(shuō)明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共時(shí)) and Diachronic(歷時(shí)) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in

17、time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(語(yǔ)言) and Parole(言語(yǔ))This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索緒爾）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

18、 of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(實(shí)際的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行為)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(發(fā)聲).4. Th

19、e Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韻學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics whic

20、h studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(詞法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(語(yǔ)義學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meanin

21、g of language. Applied linguistics(應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué)) is the

22、study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文語(yǔ)言學(xué)) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in hu

23、man beings.Mathematical linguistics(數(shù)學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II.

24、Phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(協(xié)調(diào)） in

25、the process.Auditory phonetics （聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(調(diào)節(jié)） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神經(jīng)） and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（傳送） between mouth and ear.2. The vocal org

26、ansThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(氣流發(fā)生器官） the producer of voice（聲音發(fā)生器官） and the resonating cavities.（聲音共振器官）3. Consonants(輔音）Places of articulation(發(fā)音部位）: bilabial,(雙唇） Labiodentals,（唇齒） dental,（齒） alveolar,（齒齦） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alv

27、eolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎） velar,（軟腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(聲門）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part

28、of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韻學(xué)）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有區(qū)別的） sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位變體）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小對(duì)立體）： word forms which differ from each o

29、ther only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由變異）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(環(huán)境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(補(bǔ)充分類）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When tw

30、o sounds never occur in the same environment.6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性質(zhì)） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音節(jié)），stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音調(diào)）and intonation（語(yǔ)調(diào)）.IV. Morphology（詞法）1. inflection(構(gòu)形法）：the gramm

31、atical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折詞綴）2. Word-formation(構(gòu)詞）：the processes(過(guò)程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(詞素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and cont

32、ent.4. Allomorph(同質(zhì)異象變體）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(詞根） affix（詞綴） and stem（詞干）.6. Lexicon(語(yǔ)言詞匯）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封閉性） and open-class

33、 words(開(kāi)放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(實(shí)際上） indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(詞性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(詞位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be disti

34、nguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(習(xí)語(yǔ)，成語(yǔ)）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(詞序） which is semantically（語(yǔ)義上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(習(xí)慣的） co-occurrences （同時(shí)出現(xiàn)）of individual lexical items.V. Synt

35、ax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（詞序）：the sequential(順序）arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子結(jié)構(gòu)）： the overall process of internal (內(nèi)部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts

36、of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修飾語(yǔ)） complements（補(bǔ)語(yǔ)）, etc.4. Category(范疇）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, e

37、tc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a la

38、rger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主義）：Following F. De Saussure(索學(xué)爾）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound im

39、age and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）2. Mechanism(機(jī)械主義）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布魯費(fèi)爾德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has not

40、hing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）3. Contextualism （語(yǔ)境主義）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行為主義）：Behaviorists attempt to define (定義）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(

41、情景） in which the speaker utters（說(shuō)話） it and the response（反應(yīng)） it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主義）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格學(xué)派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（爭(zhēng)辯） th

42、at meaning could only be interpreted（解釋） from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationshi

43、ps that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同義詞）, antonym(反義詞）,hyponymy(下層次）Polysemy(一詞多義）and Homonymy (同音異義詞）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意義成分）2) pred

44、ication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms. VII. Lang

45、uage variation (語(yǔ)言變化）1. Lexical change(詞匯的變化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造詞）new entities.3. Compounding合成詞）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合詞）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots