中小型企業(yè)的國(guó)際化和國(guó)際企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)：一個(gè)評(píng)論和政策影響【外文翻譯】

1、嘉興學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯外文題目： internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) and international entrepreneurship: a critique and policy implications 出 處： regional studies 作 者： mike wright,paul westhead and deniz ucbasaran 原 文：wright m., westhead p. and ucbasaran d. (2007)internationalization

2、 of small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) and international entrepreneurship: a critique and policy implications, regional studies 41, 10131029. practitioners are seeking to provide a supportive environment for growing ventures. an important policy challenge is the provision of support for small

3、 and medium-sized enterprises (smes) seeking to internationalize. to guide practitioner resource allocation decisions, recent conceptual and empirical developments relating to sme internationalization are discussed. an international entrepreneurship perspective is presented as a counterpoint to the

4、established internationalization perspectives, which may have guided practitioner understanding of the aspirations and needs of smes. the emerging international entrepreneurship perspective relating to sme internationalization is critically reviewed with regard to the following seven themes: the tim

5、ing of internationalization; the intensity and sustainability of internationalization; the mode of internationalization; the influence of the domestic environmental context on internationalization; the leveraging of external resources to internationalize; the unit of analysis (i.e. the firm or the e

6、ntrepreneur); and the effect of internationalization on sme performance. assuming an interventionist stance, a case for more balanced policy support towards sme internationalization is suggested that takes into account the diversity of smes (and entrepreneurs) that operate, or are capable of operati

7、ng, in foreign markets. implications for policy and researchers are present。themes surrounding the internationalization of small andmedium-sized enterprisestheme 1: timing of internationalizationthe timing of internationalization is an important distinguishing factor between traditional internationa

8、lization studies and international entrepreneurship studies. within the latter theoretical perspective, international new venture (inv) theorists guided by strategic choice theory and learning/knowledge theory question the stage model theory, and suggest that many new private smes can internationali

9、ze from the inception of business operations (autio et al., 2000). invs are viewed as organizations that, from inception, seek to derive significant competitive advantage from the use of resources and the sale of output to multiple countries. moreover, inv theorists assert that many firms no longer

10、regard international markets as simple adjuncts to the domestic market. smes with specific competitive advantages linked to their technological level and product and/or service characteristics may be alert to opportunities in international markets from the outset (oviatt and mcdougall, 1994, 1997).t

11、hese opportunity-driven firms, therefore, do not follow an incremental internationalization path (bell et al., 2001). firms that internationalize from the outset may be associated with the asset of newness. most notably, new smes do not have to unlearn procedures focused on developing a domestic mar

12、ket presence (autio et al., 2000). mcdougall et al. (1994) asserted that international entrepreneurs try to avoid domestic path-dependence by establishing ventures that have routines for managing multicultural workforces, for coordinating resources located in different nations, and for targeting cus

13、tomers in multiple geographic locations simultaneously.theme 2: intensity and sustainability of internationalizationinternational entrepreneurship scholars have highlighted the importance of more dynamic aspects associated with the acquisition and assimilation of new knowledge (zahra et al., 2000; d

14、e clerq et al., 2005). autio et al. (2000), for example, found that the growth in international sales reported by smes was associated with earlier initiation of internationalization, and greater knowledge intensity related to learning behaviour. a development of stage model theory is exhibited by th

15、e latter theorists who appreciate the role of knowledge and learning as well as entrepreneurial strategic choice. the implicit implication from the latter studies is that more knowledgeable firms and firms that have learnt from their successes (i.e. intelligent learning from mistakes) will increase

16、their commitment to internationalization.theme 3: mode of internationalizationthe mode of internationalization selected by a firm is an important strategic choice that can influence its position in the selected markets, and its ability to gain access to vital information and acquire resources (holml

17、und and kock, 1998). firms can internationalize through a variety of modes (ofarrell et al., 1998), and each mode is associated with risk, control and cost issues that need to be considered by the sme. the most frequently cited modes by private smes relate to direct exporting without an overseas bas

18、e, or establishing an overseas base through some form of fdi associated with a greenfield site, an acquisition or a joint venture. stage model theorists who suggest a unilinear evolutionary internationalization process, with incremental stages and a well-defined mode of internationalization at each

19、stage, have attracted extensive criticism (bell et al., 2004).studies focusing on new technology-based firms suggest that they are able to develop networks that raise the probability of selecting a joint venture to enter the foreign market (dana and wright, 2004).growing enthusiasm for international

20、ization by new technology-based firms has led to a general perception that all smes, irrespective of industrial activity, can enter foreign markets through fdi (eim, 2005).however, this mode may only be applicable to the internationalization of a small subsample of private smes engaged in knowledge

21、and technology-based activities.ofarrell et al. (1998) suggested that the internalization/transaction cost framework of internationalization is inappropriate when exploring business services smes. this is because business services firms require an understanding of what is required best to support co

22、llaboration with clients. moreover, they suggested that the transaction cost framework is unable to handle complex choices among alternative modes, and it is difficult to differentiate between experienced and inexperienced business service firms. the modes of entry into foreign markets are likely to

23、 differ on key dimensions such as the amount of resource commitment, the extent of risk, the potential for returns and the degree of managerial control. some modes of entry involve higher levels of commitment and higher transaction costs and costs relating to acquiring resources. zahra et al. (2000)

24、 found important relationships between the international mode of entry and learning in new high-technology ventures. most notably, they detected that foreign acquisitions and other higher control modes of entry facilitated greater breadth and speed of technological learning than low control modes su

25、ch as international export and licensing agreements. however, these modes may not be appropriate for all smes that internationalize.theme 4: influence of domestic environmental context on internationalizationtheme 4 arises from the notion that firms accumulate resources in domestic markets and they

26、can leverage these resources (and learning) to internationalize their firms activities (wiedersheim-paul et al., 1978).resource-based theorists suggest that some firms gain a competitive advantage based on the quality and distinctiveness of their products and/or services rather than low price alone.

27、 these advantages can accrue to individual smes when many firms specializing in the various levels of the production chain are clustered together in a particular geographical locality. certain localities may, therefore, acquire a global strength that enables individual smes located in the cluster to

28、 leverage a broad range of resources (i.e. legitimacy, technological and marketing knowledge, brand name, etc.) that can be used to circumvent obstacles to internationalization. le gale s et al. (2001) suggested that local government or local business associations have an important role in supportin

29、g specialized clusters by facilitating the accumulation and spread of local collective competition goods, particularly knowledge, between various actors in the cluster.theme 5: leveraging external resources to internationalizerather than focusing solely on the role of internal resources on a firms a

30、bility to enter foreign markets (bloodgood et al., 1996; autio et al., 2000), there may be benefits associated with viewing the firm as part of a network(s). from a resource-based perspective, being part of a network can provide external tangible and intangible resources that aid internationalizatio

31、n (dana, 2001). these inter-firm relationships impact on both market selection and the internationalization mode utilized by smes. networks may involve large and small firms in a symbiotic relationship that facilitates internationalization (dana and wright, 2004). evidence suggests that some smes fi

32、nd it difficult to market their activities to the global economy, even when local support agencies and associations try to develop their competencies. barriers to internationalization can be circumvented when one or more large firms move into an area and make the connections from local to global wit

33、h smaller firms becoming the suppliers of the corporate prime-movers (le gale s et al., 2004). similarly, acs et al. (1997) suggest that barriers to internationalization by smes can be circumvented by using larger multinational firms as international conduits for international expansion. sme interna

34、tionalization can be facilitated when large firms provide designs, technology support, quality control mechanisms and established brand names. smes with smaller resource pools may, therefore, be able to borrow size (phelps et al., 2001) and resources from (larger) organizations located elsewhere.to

35、retain existing customers in domestic markets, smes with limited resources may be pulled into foreign markets by the internationalization activities of larger network partners, such as domestic clients who have established relationships with organizations in foreign markets. in order to defend or ma

36、intain a position in a business network, a firm may be pushed into becoming an exporter, particularly if the major customers have entered foreign business networks. this is consistent with the piggy-back mode of entry. some smes internationalize because they are reactive exporters with a larger part

37、ner organization obtaining the contract to service foreign customers (ofarrell et al., 1996). by joining networks and forming alliances particularly with larger organizations smes can expand their social capital. smes can subsequently utilize knowledge (yli-renko et al., 2002) and value-creating res

38、ources that cannot be created independently. however, there may be major constraints on the ability of some smes to develop broader social and business networks.theme 6: unit of analysis (i.e. the firm or the entrepreneur)traditional internationalization theories exclusively focus on the firm as the

39、 unit of analysis. this literature may direct policy-maker attention toward firm issues to the detriment of entrepreneur issues who actually create and/or discover opportunities in foreign markets. similarly, international entrepreneurship scholars purporting the inv perspective focus on the accumul

40、ation of knowledge by the firm rather than by the individual entrepreneur. indeed, most international entrepreneurship studies generally fail to consider entrepreneur specific variables. although autio et al. (2000) considered owner-managed firms, they did not consider the internationalization exper

41、ience of the entrepreneur. zahra et al. (2000) considered internationalization experience but only at the firm level. however, during the early stages of private firm development, owner(s), no organization, characteristics play a pivotal role in shaping export performance (kunda and katz 2003). in m

42、any smes, the owner(s) is the key resource. they can accumulate human capital and social capital leading to industry and management know-how physical and financial capital needed to develop a venture; and the organizational capital that enables the competitive production of goods and services offere

43、d by a firm (brush et al., 2002) in both domestic and international markets. it is reasonable to assume that entrepreneurs (and entrepreneurial teams) can acquire and leverage foreign business knowledge, foreign institutional knowledge and internationalization knowledge (eriksson et al., 1997).theme

44、 7: effect of internationalization on sme performancethe view that internationalizing firms report superior performance is a widely received wisdom and can be regarded as theme 7. it is acknowledged here that this view is widely assumed although not directly stated (or validated) by many academics a

45、nd practitioners (eim, 2005). a review of the evidence, however, indicates no clear and consistent relationship between an smes propensity to export and ability to report superior firm performance. there is no consensus surrounding how to measure internationalization performance (katsikeas et al., 2

46、000). the variety of performance indicators used makes comparison across studies difficult. moreover, results may be affected by the sectors analysed and the time frames of analysis. indeed, many studies have failed to consider inter-industry differences between non-exporters and exporters.譯 文：中小型企業(yè)

47、的國(guó)際化和國(guó)際企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)：一個(gè)評(píng)論和政策影響中小型企業(yè)的國(guó)際化和國(guó)際企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)：一個(gè)評(píng)論和政策影響，區(qū)域研究41，10131029。實(shí)踐者正在尋求為企業(yè)發(fā)展提供一個(gè)有利的環(huán)境。一個(gè)重要的政策挑戰(zhàn)是為中小型企業(yè)尋求國(guó)際化提供支持。為了指導(dǎo)從業(yè)者資源分配的決策，最近與中小企業(yè)國(guó)際化相關(guān)的概念和經(jīng)驗(yàn)的發(fā)展進(jìn)行了討論。一個(gè)國(guó)際企業(yè)家的觀點(diǎn)是一個(gè)既定的國(guó)際化的對(duì)位角度，這可能指導(dǎo)從業(yè)者了解中小企業(yè)的愿望和需要。正在形成與中小企業(yè)國(guó)際化相關(guān)的國(guó)際創(chuàng)業(yè)的觀點(diǎn)是嚴(yán)格審查了關(guān)于以下七個(gè)主題：國(guó)際化的時(shí)機(jī);國(guó)際化的強(qiáng)度和可持續(xù)性;國(guó)際化模式;國(guó)內(nèi)的環(huán)境背景對(duì)國(guó)際化的影響; 外部資源利用國(guó)際化，單位分析（即企業(yè)或企業(yè)家

48、），以及國(guó)際化對(duì)中小企業(yè)績(jī)效的影響。假設(shè)干預(yù)的立場(chǎng)，一個(gè)為中小企業(yè)提供更多平衡的政策建議的案例建議考慮到中小企業(yè)的多樣性（企業(yè)家）的操作，或者是在國(guó)外市場(chǎng)經(jīng)營(yíng)能力。政策和研究人員給出的啟示。圍繞中小企業(yè)國(guó)際化的專題主題一：國(guó)際化時(shí)機(jī)國(guó)際化的時(shí)機(jī)是一個(gè)重要的區(qū)別傳統(tǒng)的國(guó)際化研究和國(guó)際化企業(yè)家精神研究的因素。在后一種理論的角度來看，國(guó)際新企業(yè)（inv）的理論指導(dǎo)下的戰(zhàn)略選擇理論與學(xué)習(xí)/知識(shí)理論問題的階段模型理論，并提出許多新的私營(yíng)中小型企業(yè)可以從企業(yè)國(guó)際化經(jīng)營(yíng)開始(autio et al., 2000)。invs被視為從一開始，爭(zhēng)取從資源利用和產(chǎn)出銷售到多個(gè)國(guó)家?guī)砭薮蟮母?jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的組織。此外，in

49、v理論家斷言，許多企業(yè)不再把國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)作為國(guó)際市場(chǎng)的簡(jiǎn)單附屬物。與他們的技術(shù)水平和產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)聯(lián)系的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)特點(diǎn)的中小企業(yè)從一開始就對(duì)國(guó)際市場(chǎng)中的機(jī)會(huì)警覺(oviatt and mcdougall, 1994, 1997)。因此這些機(jī)會(huì)驅(qū)動(dòng)的企業(yè)，不遵循漸進(jìn)式國(guó)際化道路(bell et al., 2001)。企業(yè)的國(guó)際化從一開始就可能與嶄新的資產(chǎn)有關(guān)聯(lián)。最值得注意的是，新的中小企業(yè)沒有忘記把發(fā)展集中在現(xiàn)有的國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)上(autio et al., 2000)。mcdougall et al. (1994) 宣稱國(guó)際企業(yè)家盡量避免國(guó)內(nèi)路徑通過建立合資企業(yè)已在管理協(xié)調(diào)位于不同國(guó)家的多元文化的勞動(dòng)力資源和

50、程序，以及針對(duì)客戶在多個(gè)地理位置的同時(shí)依賴。主題二：國(guó)際化的強(qiáng)度和可持續(xù)性國(guó)際創(chuàng)業(yè)學(xué)者都強(qiáng)調(diào)了與收購及相關(guān)的新知識(shí)同化相關(guān)的更具活力方面的重要性(zahra et al., 2000 ; de clerq et al., 2005). autio et al. (2000) ，例如，發(fā)現(xiàn)在中小企業(yè)國(guó)際銷售增長(zhǎng)報(bào)告與先前相關(guān)的國(guó)際化起步和更大的知識(shí)密度與學(xué)習(xí)行為有關(guān)。一個(gè)階段模型理論被領(lǐng)會(huì)知識(shí)和學(xué)習(xí)的角色和企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略選擇的后面理論者表現(xiàn)出來。后者研究隱含的含義是，知識(shí)化公司和企業(yè)已經(jīng)從他們的成功經(jīng)驗(yàn)中學(xué)習(xí)（即從錯(cuò)誤中學(xué)習(xí)）會(huì)增加他們的國(guó)際承諾。主題三:國(guó)際化模式被企業(yè)選擇的國(guó)際化模式是一種在市場(chǎng)選

51、擇中可以影響它的位置的重要的戰(zhàn)略選擇,并有能力去獲得必要的信息和獲得資源(holmlund and kock,1998)。企業(yè)可以通過多種方式國(guó)際化(ofarrell et al., 1998), 并且每一個(gè)模式下中小企業(yè)都是需要考慮風(fēng)險(xiǎn)、控制和成本之間的問題。最常被引用的方式是被一些沒有海外基地的民營(yíng)中小企業(yè)用來直接出口的,或通過某種形式的外國(guó)直接投資相關(guān)的綠地網(wǎng)站、獲得物或者合資企業(yè)建立海外基地。建議使用直線發(fā)展的國(guó)際化程序的階段模型理論者,用國(guó)際化進(jìn)程遞增階段和在國(guó)際化的每個(gè)階段一個(gè)定義明確的模式,吸引了廣泛的爭(zhēng)議(bell et al., 2004)。研究重點(diǎn)集中在建議科技型企業(yè)能夠去

52、發(fā)展網(wǎng)絡(luò),提高了他們選擇一個(gè)合資企業(yè)進(jìn)入外國(guó)市場(chǎng)的可能性(dana and wright, 2004)。越來越多的新技術(shù)為基礎(chǔ)的積極的企業(yè)國(guó)際化，導(dǎo)致人們普遍認(rèn)為所有中小型企業(yè)，無論工業(yè)活動(dòng)，通過外國(guó)直接投資可以進(jìn)入國(guó)外市場(chǎng)(外商eim,2005)。但是這種模式可能只適用于從事知識(shí)和技術(shù)型活動(dòng)的民營(yíng)中小企業(yè)中的一小部分進(jìn)入國(guó)際化。ofarrell et al. (1998) 認(rèn)為當(dāng)以國(guó)際化角度探討中小型企業(yè)的商業(yè)服務(wù)時(shí)，國(guó)際化交易成本國(guó)際化的框架是不恰當(dāng)?shù)?。這是因?yàn)樯虡I(yè)服務(wù)公司需要去了解什么是必需的，去盡最大的努力去支持與客戶的合作。此外,他們認(rèn)為運(yùn)用交易成本框架是無法去處理在可供選擇方案模式

53、中的復(fù)雜選擇，并且它是很難區(qū)分有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的和沒有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的商務(wù)服務(wù)公司。進(jìn)入外國(guó)市場(chǎng)的模式可能在資源數(shù)量保證,在一定程度上的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),潛在的回報(bào),管理控制的程度上是不同。一些涉及更高水平的承諾和更高的交易成本和相關(guān)的費(fèi)用的進(jìn)入方式去獲取資源。zahra et al. (2000) 發(fā)現(xiàn)在進(jìn)入國(guó)際化模式和在高新技術(shù)合資企業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)的重要關(guān)系。最值得注意的是,他們發(fā)現(xiàn)海外并購和其他更高的進(jìn)入控制模式比如國(guó)際出口和許可協(xié)議的低控制方式更容易促進(jìn)更大的廣度和速度去推動(dòng)技術(shù)學(xué)習(xí)。然而,這些模式可能并不適合所有的中小企業(yè)國(guó)際化。主題四:國(guó)際化中國(guó)內(nèi)環(huán)境的影響主題四起因于公司準(zhǔn)備在國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)積累資源和他們認(rèn)為可以利用這些資源(和學(xué)習(xí))使企業(yè)的活動(dòng)置于國(guó)際管理下的見解(wiedersheim-paul et al., 1978).資源基礎(chǔ)理論家建議一些公司通過他們的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)而不是低價(jià)來獲得基于產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量和獨(dú)特性的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。這些優(yōu)點(diǎn)歸屬于民營(yíng)中小企業(yè)將許多公司專門從事各級(jí)生產(chǎn)鏈條聚集一個(gè)特定的地理位置。因此,某些地方