北京語(yǔ)言大學(xué)英語(yǔ)專業(yè)語(yǔ)言學(xué) 期末考試試題.docx

第一次第一次期末考試提綱及解析Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (June, 2008).Translation(1x20=20%)Chinese into English=10English into Chinese=10. Fill in the blanks (2x15=30%)Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms.Answer briefly the following questions (5x4=20%).Short Essays (15x2=30%)Preparatory work expected. The list of terms for section and .Chapter 1: 1.duality 2.arbitrariness 3.creativity 4.onomatopoeia 5.ideational or informative function 6.interpersonal function 7.displacement 8.pragmatics 9.psycholinguistics 10.emotive functionChapter 2:1.allophone 2.vowel 3.phoneme 4.stressed syllables 5.consonant 6.the international phonetic alphabet 7.nasalization 8.distinctive features 9.tone 10.aspiration 11.vocal cords 12.place of articulation 13.manner of articulation 14. peak or nucleus 15.open syllable 16.dental 17.voicing 18.assimilation 19. articulation 20.speech organsChapter 3:1.grammatical word 2.lexical word 3. particle 4.auxiliary 5.morpheme 6.affix 7.free morpheme 8.bound morpheme 9.inflection 10.derivation11.morphology 12.semantic change 13.root 14.stem 15.allomorph Chapter 4: 1.syntactic relations 2.grammatical construction 3.immediate constituent 4.endocentric constructions 5.exocentric constructions 6.coordination 7.subordination 8.subject 9.prdicate 10.object 11.case 12.gender 13.tense 14.aspect 15.clauseChapter 5: 1.conceptual meaning 2.connotative meaning 3.thematic meaning 4.hyponymy 5. synonymy 6.antonymy 7.semantic features or components 8.metaphor 9.proposition 10. composite proposition. Short questions for section .1. What does the “emotive function” of language mean?2. What does duality as a design feature of language mean?3. What is the basic difference between the synchronic and diachronic studies of language?4. What is the difference between the descriptive and prescriptive studies of language?5. What is the difference between a free and bound morpheme? Give examples6. What is the difference between a root and a stem?7. What is the difference between tense and aspect?8. What is the difference between construction and constituents?9. What are the three categories of antonymy? Give examples.10. What is a preposition? Give examples.Essay questions for section .1. Discuss “creativity” and “displacement” as two design features of language.2. How are phonemes identified in the study of language?3. Discuss 5 common ways of English word formation. Give examples.4. How is the grammatical subject identified in the study of English?5. Discuss the difference between conceptual and associative meanings. Give examples.Preparatory Work of LinguisticsI. the list of terms Chapter 1: term meaningduality 二層性 The two subsystems of sound and meaning. (from notes).By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary levels are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(from textbook)二層性是指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)的這種特性，上層結(jié)構(gòu)的單位由底層結(jié)構(gòu)的元素構(gòu)成，每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則。arbitrariness任意性 No logical relationship between language elements and their meaning.（from notes） Refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationshipto their meaning. 任意性是指語(yǔ)言符號(hào)的形式與所表示的意義沒(méi)有天然的聯(lián)系。creativity創(chuàng)造性 Language users can understand and produce mew sentences to express new meanings.onomatopoeia擬聲詞 Words that sound like the sounds they describe.ideational or informative function概念功能或信息功能 When language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the erpersonal function人際功能 When language is used to establish and maintain status in a society. 用語(yǔ)言來(lái)建立并維持社會(huì)地位。displacement 移位性 Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 人類語(yǔ)言可以讓使用者在交際時(shí)用語(yǔ)言符號(hào)代表時(shí)間和空間上并不可及的事物，事件或觀點(diǎn)pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué) The study of meaning in context. 在語(yǔ)境中研究意義。psycholinguistics 心理語(yǔ)言學(xué) Investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and production utterances and in language acquisition for example. 考察語(yǔ)言和意識(shí)的相互關(guān)系，如話語(yǔ)的處理和產(chǎn)生，語(yǔ)言習(xí)得等。emotive function 感情功能 When language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person. 改變聽(tīng)者的感情狀態(tài)，或是表達(dá)說(shuō)話者對(duì)某事或某人的感情或態(tài)度。Chapter 2term meaningallophones音位變體 variants of the same phonemevowel 元音a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.phonemes音位 distinctive speech soundsstressed syllables 重讀音節(jié) 書(shū)上沒(méi)有明確解釋，講義上也沒(méi)有consonant 輔音Consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.IPA: international phonetic alphabet 國(guó)際音標(biāo) The first version of the IPA was published in August 1888.Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.nasalization:鼻音化 distinctive features: 區(qū)別性特征 a phoneme can be further analysed into a set of features and the distinctive features are phonological, binary, articulatorily and acoustically based features.tone 聲調(diào)，音調(diào) Pitch variations are called tones: tone languages and non-tone language.aspiration 送氣 vocal cords 聲帶 place of articulation 發(fā)音部位 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.發(fā)音部位指輔音的發(fā)音位置manner of articulation 發(fā)音方式The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished發(fā)音方式指完成發(fā)音過(guò)程的方法peak or nucleus 節(jié)峰 節(jié)核A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel. However, sometimes it is also possible for a consonant to play the part of a nucleus.音節(jié)必須有一個(gè)節(jié)核或節(jié)峰， 通常由原因來(lái)承擔(dān)，但有時(shí)也可以由輔音來(lái)起節(jié)核的作用。open syllable 開(kāi)音節(jié) A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable.沒(méi)有節(jié)尾的音節(jié)叫開(kāi)音節(jié)dental齒音 Dental sounds are made by the tongue tip or blade (depending on the accent or language) and the upper front teeth. Only fricative / /?/ are found to be strictly dental.產(chǎn)生于舌尖或舌葉（取決于口音或語(yǔ)言）和上齒處。只有擦音（/ /?/）是嚴(yán)格意義上的齒音。voicing帶聲性 （沒(méi)找到定義）assimilation同化 when a sound take on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound指一個(gè)音具有了臨近音的一部分或者全部特征這一過(guò)程articulation發(fā)音 （沒(méi)找到定義）speech organs (Vocal organs)發(fā)音器官 are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. 它們是人體中參與制造言語(yǔ)的部分Chapter 3term meaninggrammatical words語(yǔ)法詞 Grammatical words are words which express grammatical meanings. E.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions etc. function wordslexical words詞匯詞或?qū)嵙x詞 Lexical words are words which have lexical content. E.g. nouns, verbs, etc .content wordsparticles語(yǔ)助詞 the infinitive maker to and the negative maker not and the subordinate element in phrasal verbs, E.g. at in look at and out in knock outauxiliaries助詞 the traditional auxiliary and model verbs such as do and canmorphemes語(yǔ)素 the minimal unit of meaning or the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and contentaffixes詞綴 formative elements that have to be attached to at least another morphemefree morphemes自由詞素 free morphemes can stand alone as words, e.g. dog, map, nation bound morphemes 粘著詞素 bound morphemes have to appear with at least another morpheme, e.g. international, pre cede, etcInflection屈折 the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.derivation 派生 showing the relationships between roots and affixes and changing or not changing the word class of the original words, e.g. unconscious, booklet, disobey, lengthen, foolishmorphology 形態(tài)學(xué) it is a branch of linguistics. It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.semantic change 語(yǔ)義變化 there are three kinds of semantic changes, namely, broadening, narrowing, and meaning shift. Class shift and folk etymology also contribute to change in meaning.root詞根 it is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. Or it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removedstem 詞干 it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.allomorph 詞素變體 morphemic variantsChapter 4term meaningsyntactic relations 句法關(guān)系 the interrelationships between different constituents in sentence structure (沒(méi)找到直接的定義，根據(jù)syntax的定義編的，大家湊合著看吧 _！)grammatical construction 語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu) any syntactic construction which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contributions to the meaning or use the construction contains.immediate constituent直接成分 constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.endocentric constructions向心結(jié)構(gòu) an endocentric construction is a construction that has a centre or head which is functionally the same as the construction as a whole.exocentric construction離心結(jié)構(gòu) an exocentric construction is a construction which is not functionally the same as any of its constituents and there is no centre or head in it.coordination 并列 In English, two or more units of equal syntactic status maybe joined together to form a construction. This phenomenon is known as coordination and the construction is a coordinate construction.subordination 從屬 Subordination refers to the process of linking constituents of different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, to form a construction.subject 主語(yǔ) In some language the subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In some languages the subject is said to be the doer of the action. Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about”predicate 謂語(yǔ) Predicate refers to a major constituent of the sentences structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together.object 賓語(yǔ) Object may refer to the receiver or goal of an action and is further analyzed into direct object and indirect object.case格 the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns. In English pronouns have three cases: nominative (I, he, they), accusative (me, him, them) and genitive (my, his, their), but nouns have only two cases: common (John, boy) and genitive (Johns, boys). 名詞和代詞的語(yǔ)法范疇。在英語(yǔ)中，代詞有三種格：主格（我、他、他們）、受格（我，他，他們）和所有格（我的，他的，他們的）；名詞只有兩種格：普通格（約翰，男孩）和所有格（約翰的，男孩的）gender.性 the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns in English e.g. actor, actress; waiter, waitress; he, she. In English the gender distinction is natural as contrasted with the grammatical gender in many other European languages. There are only a small number of nouns indicating the gender distinction, and the elements indicating it are hardly inflectional.英語(yǔ)中名詞和代詞的語(yǔ)法范疇。在英語(yǔ)中性主要指自然性別，而其他許多歐洲國(guó)家語(yǔ)言中為語(yǔ)法性別。英語(yǔ)里只有少數(shù)的名詞有性的差別，并且這些詞很少有屈折變化。tense時(shí)態(tài) the grammatical gender of verbs, indicating the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking, e.g. I am a student. I went to the zoo yesterday. Traditionally: past, present, future, past future. Nowadays: past and present.動(dòng)詞的語(yǔ)法性，指示一個(gè)事件發(fā)生的時(shí)間與說(shuō)話時(shí)的關(guān)系。aspect體 the grammatical category of verbs, distinguishing the status of events in relation to the time of another event, e.g. I was reading when he came to see me. When I got to the railway station the train had already left. Progressive or continuous vs perfect.動(dòng)詞的語(yǔ)法范疇，區(qū)分不同事件發(fā)生時(shí)的狀態(tài)。clause小句A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a sentence, is a clause. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses. Non-finite clauses include the traditional infinitive, participial and gerundial phrases擁有自身主語(yǔ)和謂語(yǔ)的成分如果被包含在句子中，這個(gè)成分就是小句。小句可以氛圍限定小句和非限定小句，后者包括傳統(tǒng)的不定式短語(yǔ)，分詞短語(yǔ)和動(dòng)名詞短語(yǔ)。Chapter 5term meaningConceptual meaning概念意義 ：logical cognitive or denotative contentConnotative meaning內(nèi)涵意義 : what is communicated by virtue of what language refers toThematic meaning主題意義 ：what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasisHyponymy下義詞 ： refers to the sense relations between a more general, inclusive word and a more specific wordSynonymy同義關(guān)系 ： is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy反義（關(guān)系） oppositeness relation. Gradable antonymy: e.g. big - small Complementary antonymy: The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. Converse antonymy (relational opposites): the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy sell,semantic features（語(yǔ)義特征） or components（語(yǔ)義部分） the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE. These are the three components of this word.metaphor隱喻 involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the position命題 what is expressed by a sentence which makes a posite proposition復(fù)合命題 covering both compound and complex propositions, introduced by J. Lyons.II. Short questions.1. What does the “emotive function” of language mean?When language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person, e.g. “damn it!”2. What does duality as a design feature of language mean? It means human language possesses the property of having two levels of structures, such that sound and meaning, and this is a unique feature of human language.3. What is the difference between the synchronic and diachronic studies of the language? Synchronic studies takes a fixed instant as its point of observation, in other words, it is of a single stage of the language. But since language is changing all the time, so synchronic study is a fiction. Diachronic study is the study of a language through the course of its history, on the otherwise.4. What is the basic difference between the descriptive and prescriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in the prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Such as: dont say X is prescriptive study, and people dont say X is descriptive study. And we say linguistic is a descriptive science, because the linguist tries to discover the rules of language communities, but not to impose other rules. So the nature of linguistics determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.5. What is the difference between a free and a bound morpheme? Give examples.Those morphemes which can stand alone as words are free morphemes. For example, dog, nation and close are free morphemes. Those morphemes which have to appear with at least another morpheme are bound morphemes. For example, -s in dogs, -al in national and dis- in disclose are bound morphemes. The difference between them is whether they can make up words by themselves or not.6. What is the difference between a root and stem?Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed, e.g. internationalism. Stem is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be attached, so friend- in friends and friendship in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter indicates that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.7. What is the difference between tense and aspect ?Tense is a grammatical category of verbs, indicating the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking. Traditionally: past, present, future, past future. Nowadays : only past and present in English.Aspect is a grammatical category of verbs, distinguishing the status of events in relation to the time of another event. There are 2 aspects in English: progressive and perfect.8. What is the dfference between construction and constituent ?Construction is the grammatical structure of a sentence or any other smaller units, represented by a set of elements and relation between elements.Constituent is a component part of a construction.9. What are the three categories of antonymy? Give examples.The three categories are:1) Gradable antonymy. Example: good: bad, long: short2) Complementary antonymy: Example: alive: dead male: female3)Converse antonymy: Example: but: sell lend: borrow10. What is a proposition? Give examples.According to Lyons(1977:142-2), “ A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.” In this sense, we may very loosely equate the proposition of a sentence with its meaning.Examples:1) “ Jonh loves Mary.”2) “All men are rational.”III. Essay questions 1. Discuss “Creativity” and “displacement” as two design features of language.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. There are numerous examples to illustrate that words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who had never come across that usage before. This ability is one of the things that sets human language apart from the kind of communication that goes on. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that