關(guān)于中美文化的不同英語作文.doc

關(guān)于中美文化的不同英語作文 文化差異即是指因地區(qū)異同各地區(qū)人們所特有的文化異同而產(chǎn)生的差異霍夫斯坦特認(rèn)為:文化是在一個環(huán)境中的人們共同的心理程序不是一種個體特征而是具有相同的教育和生活經(jīng)驗(yàn)的許多人所共有的心理程序下面就由小編給大家?guī)黻P(guān)于中美文化的不同英語作文希望能夠?qū)Υ蠹矣兴鶐椭?文化差異何其大美國為何難以理解中國 DotheeventsthatledtotheoutbreakofthefirstworldwarcarrylessonsfortheSinoAmericanrelationship?AcenturyagoitwastheascentofGermanyunderKaiserWilhelmIthatunsettledtheworld;todayarisingChinaisroilingeastAsia.Then,asnow,domesticpoliticsonbothsidesplayedarole;onethatistooeasilyneglected. 導(dǎo)致一戰(zhàn)爆發(fā)的事件對中美關(guān)系有什么啟發(fā)意義?一個世紀(jì)以前德國在威廉一世(KaiserWilhelmI)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下的崛起讓世界感到不安;如今中國的崛起讓東亞感到不安當(dāng)時和現(xiàn)在一樣對立雙方的國內(nèi)政治都發(fā)揮了作用這是一個太容易被人們忽視的因素 WhydidBritainandGermanylinkedbytrade,dynasticties,cultureandreligionfindthemselvesatwarinAugust1914?Inpart,ashistorianPaulKennedyhasargued,itwasbecauseLondonsliberalideologycontributedtoitsperceptionofagrowingGermanthreat. 1914年8月存在貿(mào)易、王朝紐帶、文化和宗教聯(lián)系的英國和德國為何開戰(zhàn)?從某種程度上來說正如歷史學(xué)家保羅肯尼迪(PaulKennedy)所指出的那是因?yàn)閭惗氐淖杂芍髁x意識形態(tài)強(qiáng)化了其關(guān)于德國威脅日益加劇的認(rèn)識 Filteredthroughliberalismslens,Germanylookedmilitarist,autocratic,mercantilistandstatistandcontemptforthecountryspoliticalcultureaddedtoLondonsdisquiet.Whenthewarbegan,itquicklycametobeseenasaliberalcrusadeagainst“Prussianism”. 透過自由主義“棱鏡”德國給人看到的是軍國主義、獨(dú)裁、重商主義和計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)而對該國政治文化的鄙視也增加了倫敦的不安當(dāng)戰(zhàn)爭爆發(fā)時人們立刻將之視為一場討伐“普魯士主義”的自由主義戰(zhàn)爭 Inthisrespect,todaysSinoAmericanrivalryresemblesthepre1914AngloGermanantagonism.ThespeedofChinasgrowthworriesUSpolicymakers,asdothegeopoliticalimplicationsofitseconomictransformation. 從這個方面來說當(dāng)今的中美對抗類似于1914年以前的英德對抗中國的發(fā)展速度讓美國政策制定者感到擔(dān)憂其經(jīng)濟(jì)改革對地緣政治的影響同樣讓美國不安 AcrosstheAmericanpoliticalspectrum,Chinassuccessisattributedtoitsfailuretoplaybytherulesoffreetradeforinstance,itshabitofmanipulatingthevalueofitscurrencyandengaginginindustrialespionage.MarketorientedliberalismisthedominantideologyintheUSand,asinpre1914Britain,itshapespolicymakersimageoftheirsupposedadversary. 在美國政界上下看來中國的成功得益于其沒有遵守自由貿(mào)易規(guī)則例如慣于操縱匯率以及從事工業(yè)間諜活動以市場為導(dǎo)向的自由主義是美國的主要意識形態(tài)而正如1914年前的英國一樣它決定了政策制定者對他們所以為的對手的印象 AmericanleadersviewChinaasanationwhoseundemocraticpoliticalsystemraisesdoubtsaboutboththescopeofitsforeignpolicyambitionsanditstrustworthinessasadiplomaticpartner.Moreover,ChinasbinationofpoliticalauthoritarianismandstatedirectedcapitalismcausesuneasebecauseitchallengesthesupposeduniversalityoftheAmericanmodelofliberaldemocracyandfreemarketcapitalism. 在美國領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的眼里中國不民主的政治體制令人懷疑其外交政策雄心的范圍以及其作為外交合作伙伴的可信賴性此外中國政治威權(quán)主義與國家資本主義的結(jié)合令人不安原因是它挑戰(zhàn)了美國模式的自由主義民主和自由市場資本主義的所謂普適性 AaronFriedberg,aPrincetonUniversityprofessor,saysthatforAmericans,“thesuccessofamainlandChineseregimethatblendsauthoritarianrulewithmarketdriveneconomicsisanaffront.”FormembersoftheUSforeignpolicyelite,theChinesethreatisnotsomuchgeopoliticalasideological. 普林斯頓大學(xué)(PrincetonUniversity)的阿龍弗里德伯格(AaronFriedberg)教授表示在美國人看來“中國大陸政權(quán)將威權(quán)統(tǒng)治和市場導(dǎo)向的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)結(jié)合在一起所取得的成功是一種侮辱”對美國上層外交政策制定者來說中國威脅更多是意識形態(tài)層面的而不是地緣政治上的 PowerfulexternalanddomesticforcesareputtingtheUSandChinaontheroadtoconfrontation.Chinaaspirestobetheregionalhegemonineast(andsoutheast)Asia.TheUStheincumbenthegemon,havingdominatedtheregionsince1945isblockingitspath. 各種強(qiáng)有力的內(nèi)外因素正把美中推上對抗之路中國渴望成為東亞(以及東南亞)地區(qū)的霸主而自1945年以來主導(dǎo)該地區(qū)的現(xiàn)任霸主美國則攔在路上 YetAmericaspredominanceineastAsiacontributeslittletothesecurityofanationwhosegeographyandunsurpassedmilitarycapabilitieswouldanywaymakeitclosetoinvulnerable.TheUSisthemostsecuregreatpowerinhistoryevenmoresoifyoufactorinthedeterrenteffectofnuclearweapons.ThetruecauseofAmericaninsecurityisnotanimminentencroachmentonitsterritorybuttheriskthatUSalliancesespeciallywithJapanwilldrawitintoaregionalconflict. 然而在東亞地區(qū)的主導(dǎo)地位并不會讓美國更安全不管怎樣美國所處的地理位置和擁有的無可匹敵的軍事能力讓其處于一種近乎無懈可擊的狀態(tài)美國是歷史上最安全的大國如果你考慮到核武器的威懾作用就會更肯定這一點(diǎn)美國真正的不安全因素不是其疆域會遭到入侵而是同盟關(guān)系尤其是美日同盟將其拖入地區(qū)沖突的風(fēng)險(xiǎn) TheUSwantstomaintainitseastAsiandominancetokeeptheregionsmarketsopentoAmericangoodsanditspeopleopentoliberalideas.Chinathreatensthisopenness,onwhichAmericassecurityiswronglybelievedtodepend. 美國希望保持在東亞地區(qū)的主導(dǎo)地位以讓該地區(qū)的市場繼續(xù)向美國商品開放其民眾繼續(xù)接受自由主義思想的熏陶中國威脅到了這種開放而美國的安全被錯誤地以為依賴于這種開放 TheliberalassumptionsembeddedinAmericanforeignpolicyputtheUSatoddswithChina,andalsoheightenBeijingsmistrustofWashingtonsintentionsandambitions.ThespiralofanimositythatthreatenstoculminateinaconfrontationbetweenthetwocountriesisinlargepartacreationofAmericanpolicy. 美國外交政策中蘊(yùn)含的自由主義思想導(dǎo)致美國與中國立場不一致也加深了北京方面對華盛頓意圖和抱負(fù)的不信任感這種不斷增長的、有可能在兩國對抗中達(dá)到頂峰的敵意在很大程度上是美國政策導(dǎo)致的 AsChinasrises,WashingtonhasalastclearchancetoavoidtheloomingSinoAmericanconflict. 在中國的崛起過程中美國有最后的避讓機(jī)會可以避免不斷迫近眼前的中美沖突真正爆發(fā) ThiswouldentailmakingrealconcessionsonTaiwanandonChinasterritorialclaimsintheEastandSouthChinaSeas.ItwouldalsoinvolveamitmentthatWashingtonwouldnotinterfereinChinasinternalaffairs. 這需要美國在臺灣xx以及中國涉及東中國海和南中國海的領(lǐng)土主張上做出真正的妥協(xié)此外美國也需承諾不干預(yù)中國內(nèi)部事務(wù) Americaspoliticalculturebasedonexceptionalism,liberalideology,andopennessisabigobstacletoingtotermswitharesurgentChina.SoisthefactthattheforeignpolicyeliteremainsweddedtoAmericanprimacy,andrefusestoacceptthatthiswillinevitablyslipawaybecauseoftherelativedeclineofUSpower. 美國建立在例外主義、自由主義思想和開放觀念等基礎(chǔ)之上的政治文化是影響美國接受復(fù)興的中國的一大障礙另一個障礙是美國外交政策圈子中的精英們依然癡迷于“美國主導(dǎo)地位”并拒絕接受這種地位隨著美國實(shí)力相對衰落必將喪失的觀點(diǎn) Historyisalsoaproblem. 歷史也是一個問題 USpolicymakersarequicktoinvokewhattheytaketobethelessonsofthe1930swhileoverlookingthecausesofthefirstworldwar.DavidCalleo,aprofessoratJohnsHopkins,hasobservedthatwhatweshouldlearnfromtheearlierconflict“isnotsomuchtheneedforvigilanceagainstaggressors,buttheruinousconsequencesofrefusingreasonableacmodationtoupstarts”. 美國政策制定者迅速擺出他們從上世紀(jì)30年代事件中歸納的教訓(xùn)卻無視一戰(zhàn)的起因約翰斯霍普金斯大學(xué)(JohnsHopkinsUniversity)的戴維卡萊奧(DavidCalleo)教授指出我們應(yīng)該從更早那場沖突中學(xué)到的主要教訓(xùn)“不是必須警惕侵略者而是拒絕合理包容新崛起者將帶來破壞性后果” IftheUSwantstoavoidafutureconflictwithChina,itcannotallowliberalideologytoobstructareconciliationwithanevermorepowerfulChina.Thatisthereallessonof1914. 如果美國想要避免未來與中國發(fā)生沖突就不能讓自由主義意識形態(tài)妨礙它與越來越強(qiáng)大的中國修好這是1914年帶給我們的真正教訓(xùn) Thedifferencebetweenchineseandwesternculture Withtherapidlychallgingword,peoplethroughouttheworldhavefounditincreasinglynecessarytominimizetherateofmisunderstandingduetomismunicationintheircontactswithanother.Intheoastmosthumanbeingswereborn,lived,anddiedwithinalimitedgeoographicalarea,neverencounteringpeopleofotherculturalbackgrounds.Itmightbesaidthattechnologicaladvanceshavebeenmosteffectiveincreatingtheborderlessword,theglobalmunity.Asourworldshrinksanditsinhabitantsbeeinterdependent,peoplefromremotculturesincreasinglyeintocontactonadailybasis.Itisnolongerhardtofindsituationsinwhichmembesofinceisolaredgroupsofpeople.Nowthesepeoplemaylivethousandsofmilesawayorrightnextdoortoeachother.Soallthepeoplearefacedwiththechallengeofunderstandthisworld.Sowhentheeastmeetwest,therearemanyproblems.Someproblemsarelistedasfollows. Firstofall,thewayofeating.Allhuamanbeingshavecertainbasicneeds.Ourfundamentalneedsforthingsthatkeepusalive.Thisisthephysioligicalneed.Allindividualsmusteatinordertosurvive.Butwhatpeopleeat,whentheyeat,andthemannersinwhichtheyeatareallpatternedbyculture.Nosocietyviewseverythinginitsenvironmentthatisedibleandmightprovidenurishmentasfood.Americanseatoystersbutnotsnail.TheFrencheatsnailsbutnotlocusts.TheJewseatfishbutnotpork.TheHinduseatporkbutnotbeef.TheRussiandeatbeefbutnotsnake.Weallhaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodaregoodtoeat.Wealsohaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodarebadtoeat.Asaresult,peoplefromonecultureoftenthinkthefoodthatpeoplefromanothercultureeataredisgustingornauseating.Dislikeisnottheonlyreasonwhysomeculturewillnoteatacertainfood.Insomeclture,certainfoodsaretaboo.Sometimesthefoodtaboosmaybesostrongthratjustthethoughtofeatingforbiddenfoodscancauseanindivdualtofeelill.Wecanalsofindculturedifferenceinwayofbringupchildrentreatingtheearly,greetingeachother,sayingandspendingmoneybeforeotherpeopledoineveryday,butinsomeEnglishspeakingcountries,peopledonotagreewithus.WechinesemayenjoysomethingthatisnotusuallyconsiderasediblebytheEnglishspeakingpeople.Generallyweperfertohavethinghotandmuchemphasisonthetaste.Weeatfromoneplatewhenweareeatingwithothers,andweliketoseatonebyone,andintheshapeofaround.Ontheopposite,someEnglishspeakingcontries,mostofthepeopleliketoseatintworows,twopeoplefacetoface.Theyhavetheirownplate.Ontheaspectoftablemanners,therearemanydifferencesbetweenchineseandEnglishspeakingpeople.Forexample,insomeEnglishispeakingcountries,Breadplatesaretotheleftofthemainplate,beverageglassesaretotheright.Saladfork,knifeandsoupspoonarefurtherfromthe mainplatethanthemaincourseknife,forkandspoon.Wheneatingbreadrolls,breakoffapiecebeforebuttering.Usetheknifeonlytobutterthebread,nottocutit.Theyshouldnotstarteatingbeforeyourhostdoesorinstructstodoso.Atlargermeals,itisconsideredokaytostarteatingonceothershavebeenserved.Whenfinished,placetheknifeandforktogetheratfiveoclockwiththeforkontheleft.Itisconsideredrudetoanswerthetelephoneatthetable.Ifneedtotakeanurgentcall,excuseselfandgooutside.Trytoeatallthefoodyouareserved.ButinChina,thetablemannersaredifferent.Chinesetraditionallyeatricefromasmallbowlheldinthelefthand.Thericebowlisraisedtothemouthandthericepushedintothemouthusingthechopsticks.SomeChinesefinditoffensivetoscoopricefromthebowlusingaspoon.Ifriceisservedonaplate,asismoremonintheWest,itisacceptableandmorepracticaltoeatitwithaforkorspoon.Thethumbmustalwaysbeabovetheedgeofthebowl.Thehostshouldalwaysmakesuretheguestsdrinksaresufficientlyfull.Oneshouldnotpourforonesself,butshouldoffertopourforaneighbor.Whenyourdrinkisbeingpoured,youshouldsaythankyouandtapfingersonthetabletoshowappreciation.Whenpeoplewishtoclinkdrinkstogetherintheformofacheer,itisimportanttoobservethatyoungermembersshouldclinktheedgeoftheirdrinkbelowtheedgeofaneldertoshowrespect. Secondly,thewayofmunication.Formbirthtodeath,municationplaysanintegralpartinourlife.Therearesomelanguageproblems,includingthedifferentstylesofusinglanguagesuchasdirect,indirect;expansive,succinct;argumentative,conciliatory;instrumental,harmonnizing;andsoon.Thesedifferentstylescanleadtowronginterpretationsofintentandevaluationofinsincerity,aggreeiveness,deviousness,orarrogance,amongother.Themisinterpretationnonverbalsignsandsymbolssuchasgestures,postures,andotherbodymovements.Itisadefinitemunicationbarrier.Butitispossibletolearnthemeaningsoftheseobservablemessage,usuallyininformalratherways.Itismoredifficulttounderstandthelessobviousunspokencodesoftheothercultures.Language,asthecarrierofculture,iscreatedduringtheprocessofhumanbeingsproductivelaborandservesasthetoolofmunicationtoconveythemessagebetweenpeople.However,ithasbeenendowedwithmagicandpowerinparticularlanguageacts.Astheoldsayinggoes,troubleseoutofthetongue.Superstitiouspeoplethinkthatthelanguageitselfcanbringaboutfortuneormisfortunesothattaboostorestricttheuseoflanguagearecreated.Anyonewhoviolatesthemwillgetpunishment,whereasthosewhofaithfullyobeytherestrictionsoflanguagetaboowillgetprotection.Furthermore,linguistictabooschangewiththedevelopmentofsociety.Thepaperfirstlyanalyzestheevolutionoflinguistictaboo.ItisindicatedinthepaperthatlinguistictabooexistsinalmosteveryaspectofpeopleslifeandisauniversalsocialphenomenoninChinaandBritain.BothChineseand Englishculturesareinagreementaboutlinguistictaboossuchaspronunciationtaboo,andvocabularytaboo.However,influencedbydifferentculturalbackgrounds,ideologiesandtheconceptsofvalue,ChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboosalsohavedifferences,asisdiscussedinthepaperfromtheaspectsoftaboosubjects,taboonumbersandnames.Atlast,thispaperputsforwardtwoeffectivewaysofavoidingtaboo,thatis,usingeuphemismandhavingagoodknowledgeofthetabooculture.AndthisdiscussionwouldhelpEnglishlearnersimprovetheirabilityofcrossculturalmunicationandachievebettermunicationaleffects.Forexample,Duringthefeudaltimes,peoplewerenotequaltotherulersandweresuppressedbytheirsuperiors.Thedistinctionbetweentheupperandthelowerclasseswasalsoreflectedintheevaluationofthelanguageusedbythemrespectively.Thewordsofupperclassusedwereconsideredgoodandelegantwhilethoseusedbythelowerclasswereregardedasvulgarandindecentandshouldbeavoidedinthespeechofladiesandgentlemen.Inmodernsociety,asaresultofthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,manynaturalphenomenaarenolongermysterious.Humanbeingsnotonlyconstantlyimprovetheirabilitiestoexploittheworldwheretheyarelivingthroughtheirgreatwisdomandknowledge,butalsomakeeffortstoexploretheextraterrestrialworld.Sciencehasmuchmoresayintodayssociety.Thereby,thesuperstitiouselementsinlinguistictaboosdecreasewhilethosereflectingspiritualcivilizationincrease. Inshort,byparison,wecanfindthatbothChineseandEnglishmunicationreflectpeoplespsychologyforgoodwill,forsafetyandfortuneandpleasantness.TheChineseandEnglishpeoplerestricttheirwordsanddeedsthroughtaboos,tryingtokeepaharmoniousrelationshipbetweenhumanandnature,orbetweenpeopleandsociety.Theyareareflectionofpeoplespursuitoffreedomandequality. Themostimportant,thedifferentwayoffamilystructure,familyvaluesandfamilyeducation.Familystructureisthebigdifferencebetweeneastandwest,traditionalchinese,amonymanyotherAsians,repecttheireldersandfeeladeepsenseofdutytowardthem.Childrenrepaytheirparentssacrificesbybeingsuccessfulandsupportingtheminoldage.ThisisacceptedasanaturalpartoflifeinChina.Incontrast,takingcareofagedparentsisoftenviewedasatremendousburdenintheEnglishspeakingcountries,whereagingandfamilysupportarenothonoredhighly.InsomeEnglishspeakingcountriesarestillextrmelyfamilyoriented.Theyarededicatedtohelpingtheirchildrenandwillsacrificegreatlyfortheirchildrentogetanedcuation.Inturn,thechildrenaredevotedtotheirparents,whooftenlivenearby.Grownchildrenwhogoawayandleavethecountryfortheeconomicreasonstypicallysendlargepartsoftheirsalaryhometotheirparentsandtherestofthefamily.OrinsomeAsia,anydecisionsoractionsaredonefromfamilyconsideration,notindividualdesires.Peopesbehaviorisjudgedonwhetherit bringsshameorpridetothefamily.Thechildrenaretrainedtorelyontheirfamilies,tohonorelderlypeople,andtofearforeigners.Andmanyofthemthinkthattheiractionsinthislifewillinfluencetheirstatusinthenextlife. Thewayoffamilyedcationisalsothedifferent.Weallknowthefamilyeducationistheelementaryeducationforchildren.Manyseriousproblemshaveappearedinoureducationsysteminrecentyears.Almosteveryonehasrealizedtheimportanceofsolvingtheseproblemsandmanypeoplehavepresentedalotofvaluablesuggestions.Therearemanytypesoffamilyeducationintheworldandeachofthemshowsdistinctivefeaturesandiscloselyresponsivetoitsculture.AndAmericanfamilyeducationisthemostfamousoneamongthem.Therearegreatdifferencesintheconceptsofeducation,methodsofeducationandresultsofeducationbetweenEastfamilyeducationandWestfamilyeducation.InsomeEnglishspeakingcountries,parentsaimsaretotraintheirchildrentohavetheabilityofadaptingtoenvironmentalvarietyandtheabilityoflivingindependently.Basedonthisconcept,mostAmericanparentsemphasizemoretotraintheirchildrensabilityofindependenceoncetheyareborn.Theygenerallybelievethatchildrensgrowthmustrelyontheirownexperiences,becausetheythinkthatchildrenshouldformaselfsupportingwillandthecapacitytoliveindependentlysincetheirchildhood.Andthecapacityesfromthetrainingintheearlyage.Thesocalledtrainingcontainsmanyaspects,suchaswork,temperwill,patience,thespiritofhardwork,etc.However,themostfundamentaltrainingistheabilityofadaptingtohardconditions.Throughtheprocessofwork,childrenwillformthelaborsense,learnsomeworkskillsandformahabitoflabor.Besides,childrencanlearnhowtooveredifficulties,tempertheirwillpower,developtheirtalentsandskills,richtheirknowledge,andformahabitofhardworkandthriftybyworkinginhardconditions.Itisjustintheunconsciouslyprocessthatchildrenwillobtaintheindependentsurvivabilityandtaketheresponsibilitiesforthesociety.ComparedwithsomeEnglishspeakingcountries,Chineseparentshaveaverydifferentconceptofchildrenseducation.SomeparentsinChinaonlycareaboutwhetherthechildrenhaveapromisingfuture,agoodjob,agoodlifeornot.Basedontheseexpectations,themajorityofparentsfeelthattheirresponsibilityfortheirchildrenistocreateasgoodconditionsaspossibletheycansothatthechildrenwillnotworryaboutanythinginthefuture.Chineseparentswouldliketoprovideeverythingwhattheycanfortheirchildrenintheprocessofchildrensgrowth.Inshort,theywouldliketosacrificeanythingiftheirchildrencanlivebetterwiththeirhelp.Therefore,intheprocessofchildrensgrowth,themostimportantthingtheparentsconcerningistodevelopingtheirchildrensintellect,exceptforcaringchildrensdailylife.Inordertomaketheirchildrenhaveagoodperformanceinstudy,beeoutstanding,orevenbeeafamouspersoninthefuture,theywouldnotletchildrendoanythingexceptstudying.Asforthechildrensindependence,civicawarenessandtheirabilityadaptingtothe societyinthefuture,theyconsiderlittleornotatall.FromtheseaspectswecanfindtheobviousdifferencesoffamilyeducationbetweenAmericaandChina. WhenwefacedwiththosedifferencebetweenWestandEast,weshouldgivesomeadvicetosolvetheseproblems.Accordingtothethreebigdifferencethatpointed,weshouldfindsomewaytodealwiththeseproblems. Wecanstudyotherlanguagesandlearntoexpectinnonvwebalformsandotherculturalaspects.Wecantrainourselvestomeetinterculturalencounterswithmoreattentiontosituationdetails.Wecanuseaninvestigativeapproachratherthanstereotypesandpreconceptions.Wecangraduallyexposeourselvestodifferencessothattheybeelessthreatening.Wecanevenlearntolowerourtensionlevelwhenneededtoadvoidtriggeringdefensivereactions.Theoverallgoalshouldbetoachieveinterculturalmunicationpetence. Sotheidealsolutiontoreducetheproblemsaretoshareknowledgewithothersinmunication.Thisiswhyitiseasiesttomunicatewithothermembersofthesamegroup.Thisiswhypeoplesooftengathertogethersociallywithotherswhoareverymuchlikethem.Sinceinterculturalmunicationismunicationwithmembersofdifferentcultualgroups,andtherefore,becausewedonotshareknowledge,assumptions,values,andformsofdiscoursewiththem,wemustexpecttheretobeproblemsofinterpretation.Wemustlookfortheseproblems,anticipatewheretheywillariseoutofourdifferences,andthenplanouraommunicationstobeaseffectiveaspossible. However,wehavetorememberthat,mostofthetime,thedifferentwaysthatarethec