Chapter-5-生態(tài)系統(tǒng)-06-08-環(huán)境生態(tài)學(xué)英文版本課件

Chapter5EcosystemTheEcosystemisawhole.

Itincludesnotonlyorganiccomplexes,butalsothecomplexthatformallphysicalfactorsofenvironment.——Tansley1.1DefinitionofEcosystem(生態(tài)系統(tǒng))1.2ComponentofEcosystem1.2.1Definition

AllmaterialontheEarthmaybecomponentsoftheecosystem

1.2.2ComponentEcosystemBiologicalcomponents

Non-livingcomponentsProducersMacro-consumerMicro-consumer:Temperature,LightSolidH2O、CO2

、O2OrganicmattersPlantsPhototrophicbacteriaandotherautotrophPrimaryconsumer:HerbivoreSecondaryconsumer:CarnivoreTertiaryconsumer:LargecarnivoreMicroorganism,meiobenthosAbioticenvironment（非生物環(huán)境）Including:Climaticfactors,suchaslight,heat,water,air,etc..Inorganicsubstances,suchasC,H,O2,N2,andmineralsalts,etc..Organicsubstances,e.g.carbohydrates,proteins,lipids,andhumusetcThatallaresourcesofecosystemmaterialandenergyProducers

areautotrophicorganismsusingsolarenergytosynthesizethesimpleinorganiccompoundintotheorganiccomplexmattersTheytransformlightenergyintochemicalenergyThebasicofalltheenergyoftheecosystemneededBiologicalcomponentsConsumers

areheterotrophicorganismswhichrelyonautotrophyorotherbio-energyfromfeedingtosurvive,mainlyallkindsofanimals.

Herbivores——PrimaryConsumers

Carnivore——SecondaryConsumers

TwotypesofspecialconsumersRottenfoodconsumers----feedonplantsandanimalsdeadbodiesParasites

----Parasiticonthebodyoritssurfaceofaliveanimalsandplants,livingbyabsorbingnutrientsinahostBiologicalenvironment

Disintegrators(分解者)arereducersbelongingtoHeterotrophicorganisms.

Including:BacteriaFungi

ActinomycetesProtozoa

Theyalldecomposethecomplexorganictosimpleinorganicmatters,thenreturnthematterstotheenvironmentforrecaptureBiologicalcomponentsCase：（mainly

greenplants)——Organismsusesimpleinorganicmatterstomanufactureorganiccompounds（mainly

animal)——Organismsfeedonotherorganismsasfood(Saprophyticbacteria&Epiphyte)——Organismdecomposevarietyofplants,animalsandtheirdroppingstoinorganicmattersProducersConsumersReducers1.3StructureofEcosystemMorphologicstructureSpeciesPopulationsSpeciesspatialconfiguration(horizontalandverticaldistribution)Timechangeofgenus(developmentandseasonal)TrophicStructureThefoodwebsandtherelationshipFoodchainandFoodweb

Foodchain(食物鏈)Theone-waylinkofchain-typeformedthroughthefeedingRelationshipsamongorganisms

Thefoodchainintertwinedconnectiontoanetwork,knownastheFoodweb(食物網(wǎng))TypesofFoodChain---Predacityfoodchain(捕食性食物鏈)

plant→animal→carnivorousherbivorousanimals---Choppedfreshfoodchain(碎食性食物鏈)

BrokenFood→brokenFoodConsumer→small→largecarnivorousanimalcarnivorousanimals

---Saprophyticfoodchain(腐生性食物鏈)

plantandanimalresiduesinsoilanimals→Microorganisms→soilanimal---Parasiticfoodchain(寄生性食物鏈)

mammalsorbirds→fleas→protozoon→viral哺乳類或鳥類→跳蚤→原生動(dòng)物→濾過性病毒

Guilds(同資源種團(tuán))●Biologicalspeciesthathaveverysimilarecologicalcharacteristicsintheuseofcommonresources●“Equivalentpopulation”

Suchas:

HummingbirdGuilds（蜂雀）

TrophiclevelsandEcologicalpyramid

TrophiclevelThesumofallspeciesinsomelinkoffoodchainEnergyflowinginonedirectionTheenergyofeachtrophiclevelisprogressivelyreducedintheprocessEcologicalpyramidEnergypyramidBiomasspyramidNumberpyramid1.4Thecharacteristicsofecosystem

1.4.1Ecosystemisasystemwithdynamicfunction

●Energyexchange

●Materialtransfer●Ecosystemisalwaysindevelopmentandevolution

●Itcanbedivideditintodifferentstages1.4.2EcosystemhascertainregionalcharacteristicsEcosystemassociatedwithaparticularspace,includingspatialconceptspaceforacertainareaandscopeDifferentecologicalconditions——differentspeciesDifferentregionalnaturalenvironmentTropicalrainforestinHainanIslandMixedconiferousforestinChangbaiMountainarea1.4.3Ecosystemisanopenself-sustainingsystem●EnergyandMaterialinputandoutput●

Dischargestheentropy(熵)producedduringmetabolismtothesurroundings●

Producers,Consumers,Decomposers——thestructuralbasisofecosystem“self-maintaining”

1.4.4Ecosystemhavethefunctionofself-regulation

Whenecosystemsubjecttoexternalinterference,thesystemcouldreturntostabilitybySelf-RegulationThemaximumloadofpollutantsforanecosystemEnvironmentalcapacity

TheopenandintegrityTheoryofEcosystem●Ecosystemisanopensystem

ExchangetheinformationwiththeoutsideworldEntropy（熵）exchange●Holismprinciple（EssenceandCore）整體論Threethesisaboutintegrity●Thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts●Onceitformsthesystem,theelementswillbebrokendownintoseparateparts●Thefeatureandactionofelementsareusefulfortheintegrityofthesystemandare

expressedbytheinteractionClassificationofEcosystem

Accordingtothenatureofthespaceenvironment*Freshwaterecosystem（淡水生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）*Marineecosystem（海洋生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）*Terrestrialecosystem（陸地生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）

Bytheimpactonecosystems

*Naturalecosystem（自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）*Artificialecosystem（人工生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）LakesVirginforestAgro-ecosystemsFundamentalFunctionsofEcosystemPrimaryproductionTheproducers(mainlyplant)transferthesolarenergyintochemicalenergy—Plantproduction

Secondaryproduction

Theconsumers（mainlyanimal）transfertheprimaryproductionintoanimalenergy

—AnimalproductionBiologicalProduction2.1BiologicalproductionRelations&IndependencePrimaryproductionThesolarpowerfixedbyplantortheorganicmatters—Primaryproduction

GP=NP+RGP——TotalprimaryproductionNP——Netprimaryproduction

R——EnergyusedforrespirationGrowthandReproduction(Netprimaryproduction)TotalprimaryproductionEnergyusedforrespirationGPRNP

Production:Thedryweightoforganicmatterproducedbypersquaremeterortheenergyfixedbypersquaremetereveryyear

Biomass:Inaparticularmoment,theaccumulationoforganicmatterinaunitarea

dB/dt=NP-R-H-DHere,dB/dt——changesofbiomassinaperiod

H——Biomassfeedingbythehighertrophiclevel

D——BiomasslosingbythedeathTheDifferenceofProductionandBiomass

TheconstraintsofprimaryproductionForTerrestrialEcosystems●Basicresources:Light，CO2，H2Oandnutrients●ThemainfactorsofPhotosyntheticefficiencybasedonthestabilityWater

Temperature

TheconstraintsofprimaryproductionForWaterecosystemsWatersarethemostimportantfactorsoftheprimaryproductivityJ.H.Ryther(1965)issuedtheFormula：Here,P——Netprimaryproductivityofphytoplankton

R——Relativephotosyntheticratek——Decaycoefficient,lightintensityreducedbythedeepenofthewater.

C——ChlorophyllcontentinwaterNetprimaryproductionconsumption（消耗量,C）:thepartwhichisusedinfeedingtheHerbivoresassimilation（同化量,A）糞便量（F）:thepartwhichisnotdigested.糞尿量（FU）:thepartwhichputFandUrinetogether.Respiration（Ra）

IndividualGrowth（Pg）ReproductionSecondaryproduction2.2EnergyFlowofEcosystemEnergyFlowofEcosystem

mainlyreferstotheprocessofenergygoingthroughthefoodwebinthesystemtotransferanddissipation

Itbeginswiththeprimaryproductionandendsupwiththefunctionofthedisintegrator.Itincludeschangesinenergypatterns,energytransfer,utilizationanddissipation

TheprocessofenergyflowThesolarenergyfixedbyproducersTheamountofsolarenergyfixedbyproducers●Thestartingpointofenergyflow●Totalenergyflowingthroughecosystem●Thepathways(channels)ofenergyflowing●Theenergysourcesandblockedofeachtrophiclevel●EnergydissipationFoodchainsandfoodwebs

RespirationProcessProducers(Plant)Primaryconsumers(Plant-eatinganimal）Secondaryconsumers(Carnivore)TertiaryconsumerRespirationRespirationRespirationRespirationDisintegratorRespirationOneWayFlowing，

ProgressivelydecreasingTransferefficiency:10%—20%Thecharacteristicsofenergyflow2.3MaterialcirculationVariousofnutritionalelementswhicharenecessaryformaintainingnormallife

transferandconversethroughthefoodchainofthetrophiclevels

ThisformsthematerialflowofecosystemBut,itisnotonewayflowing

ReuseCycleRelationshipbetweenmaterialcirculationandenergyflowEnergyflowMaterialcycleFormsOrganicmattersInorganicmattersCharacteristicsOnewayCycleScopeEverytrophiclevelGlobalRelationsFix,store,transferandreleaseofenergydependsonthesynthesisanddecompositionofmaterialMaterialinthevectorEnergyisthepowerofthecycleConceptsPools

(庫(kù)):thenumberofasubstanceremaining(tobefixedorstorage)inthebioticorabioticenvironmentMaterialcyclingintheecosystemisactuallythematerialtransferringinthepoolsAccordingtolibrarysizeandlevelofactivityofthepools:Poolsusedforstorage(貯存庫(kù))

：largevolumeandslowactivity,

generallyanon-biologicalcomponents,suchasrockorsedimentConceptsPoolsusedforexchangeorcycle(交換庫(kù)或循環(huán)庫(kù))：smallvolumeandactivepart，suchasplantpools,animalpools,soilpoolsRateofcirculation

(流通率):theamountofmaterialmovingperday,persquare(volume)

Turnoverrates

(周轉(zhuǎn)率)：

FlowrateandpoolsvolumeTurnoverrates

=Flowrate/poolsvolumeTurnovertime

(周轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)間):ThecountdownofTurnoverratesTurnovertime

=poolsvolume/Flowrate

Biogeochemicalcycles

Biogeochemicalcycles(生物地球化學(xué)循環(huán))

referstoNutrientsinputandoutputintheecosystem,andtheexchangeintheatmosphere,hydrosphereandsoil

Itisdividedinto:WatercyclesGaseouscyclesSolid-phasecycles

Watercycle(水循環(huán))

Solardriveswaterfromoneformintoanotherform,Airflow(wind)andthecurrentspushitcyclingintheBiosphere

GasLiquidandSolid

Gaseouscycles(氣相循環(huán))Themajornutrients:Carbonoxygenandnitrogen

N2

inatmosphere

Ureaand

AnimalremainsNO3-MicroorganismsinthesoilNH3NO3-Nitrogenfertilizer①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨Solid-phasecyclesorsedimentarycyclesAlargepartofthematerialinvolvedinthecycledepositintothecrusttoleavethecycleforashortperiodorlongThisisauncompletecycle.

Including:phosphorus,potassium(鉀)andsulfurExample:Phosphoruscycles2.4InformationTransfer

PhysicalInformation(物理信息)：

Theinformationtransferredinphysicalprocesses,suchaslight,sound,color.Animalcourtshipbehavior,intimidation,alarmbehavior,andphysicalinformationareallrelated

Chemicalinformation(化學(xué)信息)：

Somesubstancesproducedbybiologicalmetabolism,especiallyvarioustypesofglandssecretehormonesandotherchemicalsaretransmittinginformationBehaviorinformation(行為信息)

：theinformationsendedfromtheabnormalactofplantsandanimals

NutritionInformation(營(yíng)養(yǎng)信息)

：

Intheecosystem,foodchainisaBio—NutritionInformationsystem.Thefoodchainhasacertainratiorequirements—

EcologicalPyramidLaw(生態(tài)金字塔規(guī)律)3.2TheCharacteristicsoftheEcosystemBalance3.3EcosystemImbalance3.4TheMechanismofEcosystemBalance3.1TheConceptofEco-systemBalanceStabilityandregulatoryoftheecosystem3.5EstablishTheOptimizationofecosystemsEcologicalBalance

Ecologicalbalanceis"thestabilitycoordinationbetweenorganismsandtheirEnvironment."Ecologicalbalanceisdefinedas:"eco-systemmaterialandenergyBalancebetweeninputandoutput"NegativeentropyflowfromtheinputoftheenvironmentensurestabilityofthesystemandeliminateconfusionTheBalanceoftheecosystemincreasedwiththenumberofcommunityThienemannE.P.OdumStollGreenMacArthurUnityoforganismsandtheirlivingenvironmentThermodynamictheoryofecologicalsystemEcosystemstructureandthestabilityprincipleEcologicalbalanceofinputandoutputBasis

DynamicRelative3.1Eco-systemBalance馬世駿1987侯學(xué)煜1980諸葛陽1987金以圣1987在一定時(shí)間和相對(duì)穩(wěn)定的條件下，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)各部分的結(jié)構(gòu)與功能處于相互適應(yīng)與協(xié)調(diào)的動(dòng)態(tài)平衡之中當(dāng)一個(gè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的能量流動(dòng)和物質(zhì)循環(huán)過程，在一個(gè)相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)期而不是暫時(shí)的保持穩(wěn)態(tài)，該生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的有機(jī)體種類和數(shù)量最多，生物量最大，生產(chǎn)力也最高，這就是平衡狀態(tài)的標(biāo)志生態(tài)系統(tǒng)在一定時(shí)間內(nèi)結(jié)構(gòu)和功能處于相對(duì)穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)，即受到外來干擾能夠通過自我調(diào)節(jié)以恢復(fù)到原來的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)生態(tài)平衡是指在一定時(shí)間內(nèi)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的生物和環(huán)境之間，生物各個(gè)種群之間，通過能量流動(dòng)，物質(zhì)循環(huán)和信息傳遞使它們相互之間達(dá)到高度適應(yīng)、協(xié)調(diào)和統(tǒng)一的狀態(tài)側(cè)重于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)和功能過程

強(qiáng)調(diào)為一種狀態(tài)既肯定是一種狀態(tài)，同時(shí)也考慮了維持這種狀態(tài)的機(jī)制

3.2TheCharacteristicsOfthe

EcosystemBalanceCharacteristicsofbiologicalenergyFoodNetworkFeaturesThecharacteristicsofnutrientcyclingCharacteristicsofcommunityStructureSelectionpressureSteady-state

DynamicRelativeThebasicfeaturesoftheecosystembalanceisthemeasureindicatorThetotalproductionofecosystem(生態(tài)系統(tǒng)總生產(chǎn)量P)Communityrespiration(群落呼吸量R)Childhood,P/R>1，Matureandstableeco-system,

P/Rapproaching1P/R——thebestindicatorsrefertotherelativelymatureofecologicalsystems(1)Characteristicsofbiologicalenergy

Childhood——FoodchainissimpleMatureandstableeco-system:Foodwebstructureisverycomplex,mostgothroughtherottenfoodchain.

Thecomplexstructurehavegreaterresistance.（2）

FoodNetworkFeatures

Ecosystem

Balance

maintainthenutrients

Themainnutrients,suchas：N、P、K、Ca(3)Thecharacteristicsofnutrientcycling

SpeciesDiversityIncrease

ComplexityNutritionStructure

(4)Characteristicsofcommunity

Volumeproductionischaracteristicofchildhoodecosystem.Qualityofproductionandfeedbackcontrolaresignsofmatureecosystems.

(5)Selectionpressure(6)Steady-stateKeeponthestrengthenofnutrition,greatresistance,largeamountofinformationandlowerentropy.3.3

EcosystemImbalance（1）

Naturalfactors:Volcaniceruption,seachange,lightningfire,tsunamis,earthquakes,floodsandlandslides,aswellaschangesinthecrustandsoon.Thereasoncausetheecologicalimbalance.（2）

Humanfactors:Pesticides,largequantitiesofpollutants,forestexploitation,grasslanddegradation,theconstructionofwaterconservancy.NaturalfactorsHumanfactorsDestructivelevelsSeriousandthoroughdestructioncloselyrelatedinthetimeandtheintensityTimelinessSuddenGradual,longeffectRegionalLocalLargeareaFrequency

RequencyisnothighCommonAffectSecondaryPrimary（3）ThedifferenceindamagingeffectsbetweenNaturalfactorsandhumanfactorsonecologicalbalance.Thebasiccharacteristicsoftheecosystemimbalance(1)StructureofsignsWhentheexternalinterferenceisbigenough,itcancauseoneorseveralcomponentsoftheecosystemimpairment,andthiscausePrimaryStructureincomplete.Whenexternaldisturbancesarenotveryserious,theSecondaryStructureoftheecosystemchanged.TreefellingSlightlypollutedwater(2)Functionofsigns

EnergyflowdisruptedorinterruptedinnormalchannelsinacertainnutritionallevelofthesystemEnergyflowblocked——theprimaryproductivityandtheenergyconversionefficiencyreduceor“ineffective”increase.Nutrientcyclingbreaking——therateofinputandoutputamongthelibrariesoutofproportionisthemainreasonofecosystemsimbalance.RedTideExcessiveamountofpollutantswhichexcessoftheself-purificationemissioncapacityintothewaterandaccumulateinthesystem3.4TheMechanismOfEcosystem

Balance

TheabilityofmaintainingtheinternalstabilityBasicprinciples:

Materialcycleprotectionprinciples——ContinuityProductionprotectionprinciples

StructureprotectionprinciplesPrinciplesofecologicalbalance——InternalstabilitymechanismFeedbackmechanismPositivefeedback（正反饋）

makesthesystemmoredeviatedfromthehomesite,soitcannotmaintainthesteady-state

Biologicalgrowth,populationincreaseandsoonareallthepositivefeedback.Negativefeedback（負(fù)反饋）Usingitsowncapabilitiesinreducingthepressurewithinthesystemtomaintainsystemstability.Redundancy（后備力）

referstothenumberofspecieswiththesameecologicalfunctionsinthebiologicalcommunity.

RegulationoftheEcologicalBalanceResistance（抵抗力）isthecapacityoftheecosystemresistingtheoutsideinterferencetomaintainthestructureandthefuction.

Complexstructure.Theabilitytoresistdroughtandpestsisstrong

ComplexKoreanpineforestinChangbaiMountainecosystemsResilience（恢復(fù)力）

isthecapacityoftheecosystemreturningtoorginalstatefromoutsideinterferencedamage

Simpleecosystemhasstrongrestoringforcesbutlowresistance.

BetweenthetwodottedlinesarethenormalscopeofthesystemThedegreeofdeviationaretheindicatorsinmeasuringtheresistanceofsystem.Thetimerequiredtoreturntothenormalrangeisthequantitativeindicatorsofsystem.ResistanceandresiliencearetwoaspectsofecosystemstabilityEcologicalbalancethreshold(生態(tài)平衡閾值)

Ecologicalbalancethresholdisthestrengthnotlossingtheregulationcapacityofecosystemsornotexceedingtherestoringforcefromtheinteferenceoroutsidedamagement.

Thethresholdisrelatetothetypeofecosystems,thenature,waysanddurationofexternalinterferencefactors.

3.5EstablishtheOptimizationof

Ecosystems

Themainlyactivitieswhichdestroytheecologicalbalance.Attention:Therelationshipbetweenresourcesanddevelopment.Therelativebalancebetweensupplyanddemand.Maintainthebiologicalconstraintsrelationship.TheConceptofUrbanEcosystem4.1TheFeaturesofUrbanEcosystems4.2ProblemsexistingintheUrbanEcosystem4.3

Solutions4.44Problems&Solutions

inTheUrbanEcosystem4.1UrbanecosystemUrbanecosystemAspecialartificialecosystem,composingofcityresidentsandtheirenvironment,anatural-economic-societysystem.Itisnotacomplete,self-stabilityecosystemSomecharacteristicsofnaturalecosystemsSomeprominentfeaturesunlikenaturalecosystems

4.2

ThefeaturesofUrbanEcosystems

Humanityisthecoreoftheecosystem

Hugeamountofenergyflowandlogistics,withthehighdensityandfastturnaround.Process:MiningManufacturingTransportationUseWasteCreatorConsumer

Control

and

management

Simplyfoodchainandsmallcapacityofself-regulatingSpeciesdiversity

Stabilitydependsonthecapabilitiesandlevelofregulationofthesocio-economicsub-system.4.3

ProblemsexistingintheUrban

Ecosystem（1）Thedestructionofnaturalenvironment

（2）

Landoccupationandsoilchanges

（3）Climatechangesandairpollution

（4）Watershortageandwaterpollution

（5）Citynoise

（6）PopulationdensityandwithGreen

scarce

（1）Thedestructionofnaturalenvironment

ThedevelopmentofUrbanizationinevitablyaffectthenaturalenvironment.ConvenientComfortablelivingconditionsDestroy

ThebirdsonthestakesSoilchanges（2）Landoccupationandsoilchanges

Landoccupation

（4）WatershortageandwaterpollutionWatershortage

——ConstraintsoftheproblemWaterpollution

IndustrialwastewaterMetalmaterials,chemicals,paper

（3）Airpollution（5）Citynoise

（6）PopulationdensityandGreenscarce

4.4SolutionsUrbanairpollutionandecologicalengineeringEcologicalplanningandassessmentCleanerproductionConstructionofurbangreenspaceUrbanwaterpollutionandEcologicalEngineeringDepurationThehealthcycleofurbanwaterUrbanNoiseecologicalengineeringAnti-vocalMunicipalsolidwastetreatmentanddisposalEnvironment-EconomicDevelopmentEcologicalPlanningandAssessmentOptimizationschemeTheself-regulationSustainabledevelopmentAvoidtheurbanatmospheric