第二語言學(xué)習(xí)策略

第二語言學(xué)習(xí)策略第1頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Anoverviewoflanguagelearningstrategies(LLS)forsecondandforeignlanguage(L2/FL)teachers.BackgroundofLLSandLLStraining,discussesathreestepapproachteachersmayfollowinusingLLSintheirclasses,andsummariseskeyreflectionsandquestionsforfutureresearchonthisaspectofL2/FLeducation.第2頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Agradualbutsignificantshiftoverthelastfewdecadesresultinginlessemphasisonteachersandteachingandgreaterstressonlearnersandlearning.Thischangereflectedinlanguageeducationandappliedlinguistics:theNortheastConference(1990)entitled"ShiftingtheInstructionalFocustotheLearner"andannual"Learners'Conferences"heldinconjuctionwiththeTESLCanadaconventionsince1991,tokeyworkson"thelearner-centredcurriculum"(Nunan,1988,1995)and"learner-centrednessaslanguageeducation"(Tudor,1996).第3頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月LearningStrategiesearlydefinitionsreflecttherootsofLSincognitivescience,essentialassumptionsthathumanbeingsprocess

informationandthatlearninginvolvessuchinformationprocessing.WeinsteinandMayer(1986)definedlearningstrategies(LS)broadlyas"behavioursandthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearning"whichare"intendedtoinfluencethelearner'sencodingprocess"(p.315).第4頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月LaterMayer(1988)morespecificallydefinedLSas"behavioursofalearnerthatareintendedtoinfluencehowthelearnerprocessesinformation"(p.11).Clearly,LSareinvolvedinalllearning,regardlessofthecontentandcontext.第5頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月LSarethususedinlearningandteachingmath,science,history,languagesandothersubjects,bothinclassroomsettingsandmoreinformallearningenvironments.第6頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月LanguageLearningStrategiesDefinedWithinL2/FLeducation,anumberofdefinitionsofLLShavebeenusedbykeyfiguresinthefield.Earlyon,Tarone(1983)definedaLSas"anattempttodeveloplinguisticandsociolinguisticcompetenceinthetargetlanguage--toincoporatetheseintoone'sinterlanguagecompetence"(p.67).Rubin(1987)LS"arestrategieswhichcontributetothedevelopmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructsandaffectlearningdirectly"(p.22).第7頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月O'MalleyandChamot(1990)definedLSas"thespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation"(p.1).(Oxford,1990a),Oxford(1992/1993)providesspecificexamplesofLLSi.e.,"InlearningESL,Trang(1)watchesU.S.TVsoapoperas,(2)guessesthemeaningofnewexpressions(3)predictingwhatwillcomenext"第8頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月...languagelearningstrageties–specificactions,behaviours,steps,ortechniquesthatstudents(oftenintentionally)usetoimprovetheirprogressindevelopingL2skills.Thesestrategiescanfacilitatetheinternalization,

storage,retrieval,oruse

ofthenewlanguage.第9頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Strategiesaretoolsfor(4)theself-directedinvolvementnecessaryfordevelopingcommunicativeability.(Oxford,1992/1993,p.18).Fromthesedefinitions,achangeovertimemaybenoted:fromtheearlyfocusontheproductofLSS(linguisticorsociolinguisticcompetence),toagreateremphasisontheprocesses

andthecharacteristicsofLLS.第10頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月LLSaredistinctfromlearningstyles,whichrefermorebroadlytoalearner's"natural,habitual,andpreferredway(s)ofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills"(Reid,1995,p.viii),

thereisalsoobviousrelationshipbetweenlanguagelearningstyleandusualorpreferredlanguagelearningstrategies.第11頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月WhataretheCharacteristicsofLLS?Althoughtheterminologyisnotalwaysuniform,withsomewritersusingtheterms"learnerstrategies"(Wendin&Rubin,1987),others"learningstrategies"(O'Malley&Chamot,1990;Chamot&O'Malley,1994),andstillothers"languagelearningstrategies"(Oxford,1990a,1996),第12頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月thereareanumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewofLLS.First,LLSarelearnergenerated;theyarestepstakenbylanguagelearners.Second,LLSenhancelanguagelearningandhelpdeveloplanguagecompetence,asreflectedinthelearner'sskillsinlistening,speaking,reading,orwritingtheL2orFL.Third,LLSmaybevisible(behaviours,steps,techniques,etc.)orunseen(thoughts,mentalprocesses).Fourth,LLSinvolveinformationandmemory(vocabularyknowledge,grammarrules,etc.).第13頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月WhendiscussingLLS,Oxford(1990a)andotherssuchasWendenandRubin(1987)note(5)adesireforcontrolandautonomyoflearningCohen(1990)insiststhatonlyconscious

strategiesareLLS,andthattheremustbeachoiceinvolvedonthepartofthelearner.第14頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Transferofastrategyfromonelanguageorlanguageskill

toanother

isarelatedgoalofLLS,(Pearson(1988)andSkehan(1989)).第15頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Oxford’stwelvekeyfeatures.Inadditiontothecharacteristicsnotedabove,shestatesthatLLS:(6)allowlearnerstobecomemoreself-directed(7)expandtheroleoflanguageteachers(8)areproblem-oriented(9)involvemanyaspects,notjustthecognitive(10)canbetaught(11)areflexible(12)areinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors.(Oxford,1990a,p.9)第16頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月WhyareLLSImportantforL2/FLLearningandTeaching?Within'communicative'approachestolanguageteachingakeygoalisforthelearnertodevelopcommunicativecompetenceinthetargetL2/FL,andLLScanhelpstudentsindoingso.第17頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Animportantdistinctionexists,however,betweencommunicationandlanguagelearningstrategies.Communicationstrategies

areusedbyspeakersintentionallyandconsciously

inordertocopewithdifficultiesincommunicatinginaL2/FL(Bialystok,1990).第18頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月ThetermLLSisusedmoregenerallyforallstrategiesthatL2/FLlearnersuseinlearningthetargetlanguage,andcommunicationstrategiesarethereforejustonetypeofLLS.ForallL2teacherswhoaimtohelpdeveloptheirstudents'communicativecompetenceandlanguagelearning,then,anunderstandingofLLSiscrucial.AsOxford(1990a)putsit,LLS"...areespeciallyimportantforlanguagelearningbecausetheyaretoolsforactive,self-directedinvolvement,whichisessentialfordevelopingcommunicativecompetence"(p.1).第19頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Inadditiontodevelopingstudents'communicativecompetence,LLSareimportantbecauseresearchsuggeststhattrainingstudentstouseLLScanhelpthembecomebetterlanguagelearners.Earlyresearchon'goodlanguagelearners'byNaiman,Frohlich,Stern,andTodesco(1978,1996),Rubin(1975),andStern(1975)suggestedanumberofpositivestrategiesthatsuchstudentsemploy,rangingfromusinganactivetaskapproachinandmonitoringone'sL2/FLperformancetolisteningtotheradiointheL2/FLandspeakingwithnativespeakers.第20頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月O'MalleyandChamot(1990)alsosuggeststhateffectiveL2/FLlearnersareawareoftheLLStheyuseandwhytheyusethem.Graham's(1997)workinFrenchfurtherindicatesthatL2/FLteacherscanhelpstudentsunderstandgoodLLSandshouldtrainthemtodevelopandusethem.第21頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Skehan(1989)cautions"thereisalwaysthepossibilitythatthe'good'languagelearningstrategies...arealsousedbybadlanguagelearners,butotherreasonscausethemtobeunsuccessful"(p.76).VannandAbraham(1990)foundevidencethatboth'good'and'unsuccessful'languagelearnerscanbeactiveusersofsimilarLLS,thoughitisimportantthattheyalsodiscoveredthattheirunsuccessfullearners"apparently...lacked...whatareoftencalledmetacognitivestrategies...whichwouldenablethemtoassessthetaskandbringtobearthenecessarystrategiesforitscompletion"(p.192).第22頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月AnumberandrangeofLLSareimportantifL2/FLteachersaretoassiststudentsbothinlearningtheL2/FLandinbecominggoodlanguagelearners.第23頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月WhatKindsofLLSAreThere?Thereareliterallyhundredsofdifferent,yetofteninterrelated,LLS.OxfordhasdevelopedafairlydetailedlistofLLSinhertaxonomyFirst,Oxford(1990b)distinguishesbetweendirectLLS,"whichdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatter",i.e.theL2orFL,andindirectLLS,which"donotdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatteritself,butareessentialtolanguagelearningnonetheless"(p.71).第24頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Second,eachofthesebroadkindsofLLSisfurtherdividedintoLLSgroups.OxfordoutlinesthreemaintypesofdirectLLS,forexample.Memorystrategies"aidinenteringinformationintolong-termmemoryandretrievinginformationwhenneededforcommunication".CognitiveLLS"areusedforformingandrevisinginternalmentalmodelsandreceivingandproducingmessagesinthetargetlanguage".Compensationstrategies"areneededtoovercomeanygapsinknowledgeofthelanguage“(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第25頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Oxford(1990a,1990b)alsodescribesthreetypesofindirectLLS.Metacognitivestrageties"helplearnersexercise'executivecontrol'throughplanning,arranging,focusing,andevaluatingtheirownlearning".AffectiveLLS"enablelearnerstocontrolfeelings,motivations,andattitudesrelatedtolanguagelearning".Finally,socialstrategies"facilitateinteractionwithothers,ofteninadiscoursesituation"(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第26頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月ThesesixmaintypesofLLS(Oxford1990a,pp.18-21),arefurtherdividedinto19strategygroupsand62subsets.forexample,thesocialLLSthatOxfordlistsunderindirectstrategies.ThreetypesofsocialLLSarenotedinOxford(1990a):askingquestions,co-operatingwithothers,andempathisingwithothers(p.21).GeneralexamplesofLLSgivenineachofthesecategoriesareasfollows:Askingquestions AskingforclarificationorverificationAskingforcorrection Co-operatingwithothersCo-operatingwithpeers Co-operatingwithproficientusersofthenew languageEmpathisingwithothers DevelopingculturalunderstandingBecomingawareofothers'thoughtsandfeelings(Oxford,1990a,p.21)第27頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Inaskingquestions,forexample,studentsmightasksomethingspecificlike"Doyoumean...?"or"Didyousaythat...?"inordertoclarifyorverifywhattheythinktheyhaveheardorunderstood.第28頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月WhatisimportanttonotehereisthewayLLSareinterconnected,bothdirectandindirect,andthesupporttheycanprovideonetotheother(seeOxford,1990a,pp.14-16).IntheaboveillustrationofsocialLLS,forexample,astudentmightaskthequestionsaboveofhisorherpeers,thereby'co-operatingwithothers',andinresponsetotheanswerheorshereceivesthestudentmightdevelopsomeaspectofL2/FLculturalunderstandingorbecomemoreawareofthefeelingsorthoughtsoffellowstudents,theteacher,orthoseintheL2/FLculture.第29頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Whatislearnedfromthisexperiencemightthenbesupportedwhenthesamestudentusesadirect,cognitivestrategysuchas'practising'torepeatwhatheorshehaslearnedortointegratewhatwaslearnedintoanaturalconversationwithsomeoneinthetargetL2/FL.第30頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月USINGLLSINTHECLASSROOMContextsandClassesforLLSTrainingLLSandLLStrainingmaybeintegratedintoavarietyofclassesforL2/FLstudents.Onetypeofcoursethatappearstobebecomingmorepopular,especiallyinintensiveEnglishprogrammes,isonefocusingonthelanguagelearningprocessitself.第31頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Inthiscase,textssuchasEllisandSinclair's(1989)LearningtoLearnEnglish:ACourseinLearnerTrainingorRubinandThompson's(1994)HowtoBeaMoreSuccessfulLanguageLearnermightbeusedinordertohelpL2/FLlearnersunderstandthelanguagelearningprocess,thenatureoflanguageandcommunication,whatlanguagelearningresourcesareavailabletothem,andwhatspecificLLStheymightuseinordertoimprovetheirownvocabularyuse, grammarknowledge,andL2/FLskillsinreading,writing,listening,andspeaking.第32頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月ThreestepapproachtoimplementingLLStrainingintheclassroomStep1:StudyYourTeachingContextAtfirst,itiscrucialforteacherstostudytheirteachingcontext,payingspecialattentiontotheirstudents,theirmaterials,andtheirownteaching.itiscrucialtoknowsomethingaboutthelearners,theirinterests, motivations, learningstyles,etc.第33頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Byobservingtheirbehaviourinclass,forexample,youwillbeabletoseewhatLLStheyalreadyappeartobeusing.Dotheyoftenaskforclarification,verification,orcorrection,?Dotheyco-operatewiththeirpeersorseemtohavemuchcontactoutsideofclasswithproficientL2/FLusers?第34頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Beyondobservation,however,onecanprepareashortquestionnairethatstudentscanfillinatthebeginningofacourse,describingthemselvesandtheirlanguagelearning.第35頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Sharkey(1994/1995),forinstance,asksstudentstocompletestatementssuchas"InthisclassIwantto/will/won't....","Myfavourite/leastfavouritekindsofclassactivitiesare...","IamstudyingEnglishbecause...",etc.(Sharkey,1994/1995,p.19).第36頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Talkingtostudentsinformallybeforeorafterclass,ormoreformallyinterviewingselectstudentsaboutthesetopicscanalsoprovidealotofinformationaboutone'sstudents,theirgoals, motivations,andLLS, andtheirunderstandingofthe particularcoursebeingtaught.第37頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Beyondthestudents,however,one'steachingmaterialsarealsoimportantinconsideringLLSandLLStraining.Textbooks,forexample,shouldbeanalysedtoseewhethertheyalreadyincludeLLSorLLStraining.ScarcellaandOxford's(1992)Tapestrytextbookseries,forexample,incorporates"learningstrategy"boxeswhichhighlightLLSandencouragestudentstousetheminL2/FLtasksorskills.第38頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Oneexamplefromaconversationtextintheseriesstates:"ManagingYourLearning:Workingwithotherlanguagelearnersimprovesyourlisteningandspeakingskills"(Earle-Carlin&Proctor,1996,p.8).EFLwritingtextsmayhavebriefsectionsonmakingone'sreferentsclear,outlining,andchoosingtherightvocabulary,allofwhichmaybemodelledandusedinLLStrainingincompositioncourse.第39頁，課件共45頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Audiotapes,videotapes,hand-outs,andothermaterialsforthecourseathandshouldalsobeexaminedforLLSor