語言學(xué)-第五章課件

ChapterFive

Semantics1

ChapterFocuses:1.Theconceptualistview2.Contextualism3.Behaviorism4.Leech’s7typesofmeaning5.Referentialtheory6.Senserelation7.Componentialanalysis8.Sentencemeaning

2Focuses:21.Definition:thestudyofmeaning;Morespecifically,thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.31.Definition:thestudyofmeThebasicareaofstudy:themeaningofsigns;relationsbetweendifferentlinguisticunits4Thebasicareaofstudy:42.Approachestomeaning:Whatisthemeaningofsputnik?Ididn’tmeantohurtyou.Lifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.Fameandrichesmeannothingtothetruescholar.52.Approachestomeaning:5意義：語言文字或其他符合所表達的內(nèi)容。e.g.節(jié)約就是不浪費的意思。價值；作用。e.g.人生的意義6意義：6Namingtheory(Plato)TheconceptualistviewContextualism(Bloomfield)BehaviorismTruthconditions7Namingtheory(Plato)7Namingtheory(Plato)命名論Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.N.:objectsoreventsadj.:propertiesofthoseobjectsoreventsV.:actionsAdv.:thepropertiesofthoseactions8Namingtheory(Plato)命名論WordsPlato（柏拉圖）：詞義就是事物、行為和屬性的名稱，或者說詞語有指義或命名的功能。Russell（羅素）：一個詞的意義就是一個對象，即一個詞意指著某客體，也就是代表著一個客體。9Plato（柏拉圖）：詞義就是事物、行為和屬性的名稱，或者說Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…4)Somewordsmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts.5)Thesamereferencemayhavedifferentnames.10Limitations:10Theconceptualistview概念論(ideationaltheory）thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.11Theconceptualistview概念論(ideaOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference/concept12OgdenandRichards:semantictThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.13131.形式與意義直接相關(guān)，用實線連接。意義通過符號形式來表達，形式是語義的載體。2.意義是在各觀事物的基礎(chǔ)上概括而成的，是客觀事物在頭腦中的概括反映，兩者也有直接聯(lián)系，用實線連接。3.形式和所指之間沒有必然的聯(lián)系，故而兩者間用虛線連接，所以同一事物可以用不同的形式來表示。141.形式與意義直接相關(guān)，用實線連接。意義通過符號形式來表達Thecontextualism語境論Iamnearthebank.

“black”:blackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;Thecontextdeterminesthemeaning.15Thecontextualism語境論15Situationalcontext:Thesetting;Thespeakerandhearer;Theactivities;Otherparticipants;Externalobjectsandevents.Linguisticcontext:theprobabilityofwordsorexpressionsco-occurrenceorcollocation.16Situationalcontext:16ThelinguisticmodelofcontextualismLanguageisalwaysusedinacertaincontext.SpeakerAlanguagespeakerBContext17Thelinguisticmodelofcontex

ImportantfiguresofcontextualismMalinowski:Foralargeclassofcases……themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.Firth:Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.Halliday:Meaningisthebridgebetweenlinguisticformsandsituation.18Importantfiguresofcontextu

AproblemwiththecontextualismContextissuchacomplicatedconcept,consistingofsomanyfactors.如：世界知識、語言知識、集體知識、參與者、背景、正式程度和基調(diào)、媒介、語篇因素、表現(xiàn)等。（胡壯麟2002：“語境研究的多元化”）19AproblemwiththecontextualBehaviorism行為主義論Behaviorists:“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.20Behaviorism行為主義論Behaviorists:themeaning:“I’mThirsty.”:JillJackS________r……s________RS=Jillseesanappler=Jillsays“I’mThirsty”

s=JackhearsJillsays“I’mthirsty”

R=JackpickstheappleforJill21themeaning:“I’mThirsty.”:2

JillJackS________r……s________RMeaningconsistsintherelationshipbetweenspeechindicatedbythesmalllettersr……sandthepracticaleventsrepresentedbythecapitalizedlettersSandRthatprecedeandfollowthem

respectively.22JillImportantFiguresofBehaviorism:Watson：詞的意義就是對詞的有條件的反應(yīng)。Bloomfield（布龍菲爾德）：意義就是講話人的刺激和聽話人的反應(yīng)。（meaningasspeaker’sstimulusandhearer’sresponse）23ImportantFiguresofBehavioriProblems:在許多不同的情景中，語詞和詞句的意義是相同的。意義不能等同于聽話人的反應(yīng)，因為：（1）對同樣的話語可以有不同的反應(yīng)。（2）對不同的語言有同樣的反應(yīng)。（3）對話語沒有反應(yīng)。（4）人們往往要先搞清話語的意義才可能作出反應(yīng)。24Problems:24Truthconditions真值條件*ThekingofFranceisbald.*Thedeclarationofindependencewassignedin1976.25Truthconditions真值條件25*Knowingthemeaningofasentenceistoknowtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse.*Knowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionistoknowthepartitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.26*Knowingthemeaningofasen3.Leech’s7typesofmeaning

1974,Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning.

7typesofmeaning:2727ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedandmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaningAssociativeMeaning28Associative28

Conceptualmeaning概念意義(‘denotative,logicalorcognitive’meaning).desk:apieceoffurniturewithawritingsurfaceandusuallydrawersorothercompartments

Bird:warm-bloodedegg-layingvertebratescharacterizedbyfeathersandforelimbsmodifiedaswings

29Conceptualmeaning概念意義(‘denConcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.一個詞本身所代表的字面意義或核心意義。twosides:sense(意義)andreference（所指）30ConcernedwiththerelationshiSense:concernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform;thecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.意思、涵義、意義、或系統(tǒng)意義：指與語境無關(guān)、僅涉及語言內(nèi)部成分之間關(guān)系的意義，它是意義的中心.31Sense:concernedwiththeinhethesenseof“dog”:Acommon4-legged

flesh-eating

animal,esp.anyofthemanyvarietiesusedbymanasacompanionorforhunting,working,guarding,etc.32thesenseof“dog”:32Reference（所指）:whatalinguisticformreferstointhephysicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.指稱意義、照應(yīng)關(guān)系、所指意義、參照、或外指意義：即表明詞語跟語言外部世界的關(guān)系的意義。33Reference（所指）:whatalinguistLookatthepicture.Init,Maryissaying,“Oh!Ilovethisdogverymuch!”Whatdoesthe“dog”referto?

ThedoginfrontofMary!3434

ReferenceVs.ContextLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Linguisticsformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Meaning=sense+reference

SemanticsVs.Pragmatics35ReferenceVs.ContextLinguisDifferences:意義具有相對的穩(wěn)定性、明確性；而所指會因人、時、地而異，具有變化性、模糊性。一般說來，意義是抽象化了的定義，多具有非物質(zhì)化特征；而所指會具有物質(zhì)化的特征。有意義的詞語都有系統(tǒng)意義，但不一定有所指。36Differences:意義具有相對的穩(wěn)定性、明確性；而所指Connotative(associated)meaning內(nèi)涵意義old(andwornout)blue(anddown-hearted)sweet(lovely)孩子（幼稚，不懂事）37Connotative(associated)meaniThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.通過語言所指所傳達的意義38ThecommunicativevalueaneAmultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.Varyfromagetoage,fromsocietytosociety,fromindividualtoindividual39Amultitudeofadditional,nonInvolvingthe‘realworld’experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.40Involvingthe‘realworld’exp附加在概念意義上的意義，社會、階級、階層、集團或個人都可以給一個詞附加上內(nèi)涵意義。

woman:frail,pronetotears,emotional,inconstant;compassionate,hard-working41附加在概念意義上的意義，社會、階41Socialmeaning社會意義4242domicile:veryformal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babylanguage43domicile:veryformal,officiaSocialmeaning:Anexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse,mainlystylisticmeaningofanutterance.

所傳達的關(guān)于語言使用的社會環(huán)境的意義44Socialmeaning:AnexpressiDialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.Time:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.Province:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.45Dialect:thelanguageofageoAffective(emotive)meaning感情意義IhopeforthesakeofpeaceandstabilitythatClintonwillprovehimselfmorestatesmanthanpolitician.干部，當(dāng)官的46Affective(emotive)meaning46Reflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.感情意義：所傳達的關(guān)于說話人或作者感情，態(tài)度方面的意義

47ReflectingthepersonalfeelinReflectivemeaning（聯(lián)想意義）Cock：intercourse,ejaculation,erection，sex48Reflectivemeaning（聯(lián)想意義）48whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.這是一種能引起聽者或讀者聯(lián)想的意義，當(dāng)你聽到或讀到它們時，會馬上聯(lián)想起別的事情來。

49whatiscommunicatedthroughCollocativemeaning搭配意義pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.clearcase,clearconscience50Collocativemeaning搭配意義50whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.通過聯(lián)想詞語的常用搭配而傳達的意義。51whatiscommunicatedthroughaThematicmeaning主題意義MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.52Thematicmeaning主題意義52Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.通過詞序和各種強調(diào)方式表達出來的意義。兩個句子，一個用主動結(jié)構(gòu)，一個用被動結(jié)構(gòu)，盡管所指的事實或所談的內(nèi)容相同，但句子的意義不完全一樣。53Whatiscommunicatedbythewa4.Majorsenserelations

Synonymy(同義詞)Antonymy（反義詞）Polysemy（多義性）Homonymy（同音異義）Hyponymy（下義關(guān)系）544.MajorsenserelationsSynon

Synonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground55Synonymybuy/purchase55thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

1)Dialectalsynonyms:usedindifferentregionaldialectse.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…

2)Stylisticsynonyms:differinginstyle.e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence56thesamenessorclosesimilari3)Synonymsdifferingintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,

e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms.e.g.amaze,astound,…573)SynonymsdifferingintheirAntonymy

husband-wife,pass—fall;true—false;present—absent;married---singleWordsareoppositeinmeaning.58Antonymy58Gradableantonymse.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-shortGradableantonyms:thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,59Gradableantonymse.g.old-youn

good---badlong---shortbig---smallFeatures:Canbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.60good---bad60Complementaryantonymse.g.alive-dead,male-femaleComplementaryantonyms:thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.61Complementaryantonymse.g.alialive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss62alive:deadodd:even62Relational(Converse)antonymy：buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:after63Relational(Converse)antonymyRelational(Converse)antonymy：exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.

64Relational(Converse)antonymyPolysemy多義詞e.g.“table”:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.

Thesamewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.65Polysemy多義詞e.g.“table”:65Homonymy（同音異義）night/knightLead(n.)-lead(v.)ball(n.球)-ball(n.舞廳)66Homonymy（同音異義）66Homonymy：thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone：whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reignHomogragh：whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.)Completehomonym：whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.bank,watch,scale,fast67Homonymy：thephenomenonthatwHyponymy（下義關(guān)系）fruit:apple,orange,pearfurniture:desk,chair,bed68Hyponymy（下義關(guān)系）68Hyponymy：thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Inclusiveness：Aisincludedin/akindofB.roseandflower69Hyponymy：thesenserelationbeSuperordinate（上義詞）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms（下義詞）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.70Superordinate（上義詞）:thewordw5.Senserelationsbetweensentences

(1)

XissynonymouswithY(2)

XisinconsistentwithY(3)

XentailsY(4)

XpresupposesY(5)

Xisacontradiction(6)

Xissemanticallyanomalous715.SenserelationsbetweensenXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.72XissynonymouswithYX:HewaXisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.73XisinconsistentwithYX:HeXentailsY（X蘊涵Y）X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.X:Johnoftenbeatshiswife.Y:Johnismarried.74XentailsY（X蘊涵Y）X:JohnmarriEntailment:arelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.(下義詞蘊涵著上義詞，上義詞和下義詞之間存在著蘊涵關(guān)系。)75Entailment:arelationofincl

E:arelationshipbetweentwoormoress.Ifknowingthatonesistruegivesuscertainknowledgeofthetruthoftheseconds,thenthefirstsentailsthesecond.Itisconcernedwiththemeaningofthesitself.Itdoesnotdependonthecontextinwhichasisused.蘊涵是兩個或更多句子（命題）之間的一種關(guān)系。如果已知第一個句子真實給出關(guān)于第二個句子真實性的某些信息，那么第一個句子蘊涵第二個句子。它涉及的是句子本身的意義，不依賴于句子使用的上下文。76E:arelationshipbetweentA.johnpickedatulip.B.johnpickedaflower.A.Isawaboy.B.Isawaperson.77A.johnpickedatulip.77XpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Pauloncesmoked.WhendidJohnstealthehorse?Johnstolethehorse.78XpresupposesY78P:asemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.APresupposesB,thatis,BisprerequisiteofA.A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhasaqueen.

Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.IfAisfalse,Bisstilltrue;IfBistrue,Aiseithertrueorfalse.IfBisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutA.Informula:A→B-A→B79P:asemanticrelationshiporXisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan’sparentsareprettywell-off.80Xisacontradiction*MyunmarrXissemanticallyanomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.81Xissemanticallyanomalous*Th6.Componentialanalysis

wife:[+HUMAN][ADULT][+MALE][-MARRIED]

father：[+MALE][+ASCEND][-DESCEND][+LINERL]826.Componentialanalysis82awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.basedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.aprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.

83awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaniOnewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,with“+”“-“beforethem,plussignindicatesthepresenceofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabsenceofit.

84Onewayofdescribingthec

walk:[+NATURAL][-HURRIED][+FORWARD][+ONEFOOTALWAYSONGROUND]

Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]

85

walk:[+NATURAL][-HURRIED][kill:[CAUSE][DIE]rise:[BECOME][MORE][HIGH]raise:[CAUSE][BECOME][HIGH]8686father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)xisaparentofy,andxismale.take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxtohavey.give:CAUSE(x,(~HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxnottohavey.87father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(StrongPointsprovidesaninsightintothemeaningofwordsandawaytostudytherelationshipsthatarerelatedinmeaning.88StrongPointsprovidesaninsiFeatureItemsHUMANMALEADULTMan+++Woman+-+Boy++-Girl+--89FeatureMan++ItemsFeatures父親祖父外祖父母親祖母外祖母兒子女兒孫子孫女外孫外孫女AMLE+++---+-+-+-ADULT++++++DIRECT++-++-++++--GENERATION++++++++++__________90Items父親祖父外祖父母親祖母外祖母兒子女兒孫子Showthehyponymyrelationbetweenwords:man:[+ADULT][+HUMAN][+MALE]bachelor:[+ADULT][+HUMAN][+MALE][UNMARRIED]Definethenaturalcategories:

[+HUMAN]有關(guān)人類的名詞[-ANIMATE]非動物名詞

91ShowthehyponymyrelationbetExplainrelationshipbetweensomesentences:

Johnisabachelor.蘊涵：Johnisaman.92Explainrelationshipbetweens

WeakPoints水可以用H2O來定義，而語義卻不能用同樣嚴(yán)格的方法借助義素來定義（熊學(xué)亮2003：98），因為：1.我們無法確定什么樣的詞語可以用作義素。義素自身可能被進一步分解。93WeakPoints水可以用H2O來定義，而語義卻不能用2.定義所用的所有義素可能不足以窮盡詞語的內(nèi)涵。如：Bachelor:[+MALE][+ADULT][–MARRIED]942.定義所用的所有義素可能不足以窮盡詞語的內(nèi)涵。如：943.分解寓意既不與真實世界掛鉤，也不與認(rèn)識世界掛鉤，只不過是有一種符號體系（如元語言）去代替、闡述或說明另一種符號體系（如自然語言）的意義的做法，給人一“兩頭不著邊”的感覺。（熊學(xué)亮2003：98-100）953.分解寓意既不與真實世界掛鉤，也不與認(rèn)識世界掛鉤，只不過4.總體上說，無論是語義特征本身，還是語義特征分析法，都是主觀性的。因此，目前作為一種科學(xué)方法，語義特征分析法在理論上還沒有形成一整套成熟的操作規(guī)程。964.總體上說，無論是語義特征本身，還是語義特征分析法，都是7.SentenceMeaningThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.977.SentenceMeaningThemeaniThecatischasingthemouse.Themouseischasingthecat.Ihavereadthatbook.ThatbookIhaveread.ThedaughterofQueenElizabeth’ssonisthesonofQueenElizabeth’sdaughter.98Thecatischasingthemouse.9Compositionality組合性themeaningofasentencedependson:themeaningsoftheconstituentwords:thewaytheyarecombined.句子意義由成分詞的意義及其組合方式所決定，這一觀點通常叫做組合性。99Compositionality組合性themeaninAnintegratedsemantictheory

1963,Katz&PostalTwoparts:

Dictionary;projectionrule

100AnintegratedsemantictheoryDictionary:

a)grammaticalclassification:hit–Vtr;ball---Nc(grammaticalorsyntacticmarker)b)semanticinformation:bachelor:whonever

101Dictionary:101asetofprojectionrules（投射原則）

alexicalitemhasspecificinformationaboutsyntacticcategorieswhichitprojectsontothestructureofthesentence.Itisresponsibleforcombingthemeaningsofwordstogether.

詞性具有句法分類方面的信息，而且會將這些信息投射到句子結(jié)構(gòu)中去。

102asetofprojectionrules（投give:有兩個名詞片語作補語，它可以把這個信息投射到下列句子中去。shegavetheaccountantthefile.103give:有兩個名詞片語作補語，它可以把這個信息投射到Selectionrestrictions:semanticrestrictionsonwhichlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.“regret”requiresahumansubject.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.

Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.104104Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.105AccordingtotheprincipleofProposition:Apropositioniswhatisexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.命題是陳述句被用于陳述事件時所表達的意義。e.g.Johnhaspassedhisdrivingtest.HisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche.IfJohnhaspassedhisdrivingtest,hisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche.106Proposition:106Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.Itiseithertrueoffalse.thetruthvalueofacompositepropositionissaidtobethefunctionof,orisdeterminedby,thetruthvaluesofitscomponentpropositionsandthelogicalconnectivesusedinit.命題的一個極為重要的性質(zhì)是有真值，它要么真要么假。復(fù)合命題的真值是成分命題真值和所用邏輯連詞來決定著。107Averyimportantpropertyof5usuallogicalconnectivesthenegativeconnective～(否定連詞not)theconjunctive&（合取連詞and）thedisjunctiveconnective∨（析取連詞either…or）theimplicational(conditional)connective→（蘊含連詞）theequivalentconnective≡（等值連詞ifandonlyif,onlywhen,exactlywhen）.1085usuallogicalconnectives10Propositonallogic:Negation(否定)：p:Johnisadoctor.-p:Johnisnotadoctor.-p=pp&qShecannotsinganddance.Shecannotbothdanceandsing.Shecannotdanceorsing.109Propositonallogic:109Conjunction(合取關(guān)系)Studentswhodonotarriveintimeorhavenotcompletedalltheirassignmentswillberefusedadmissiontotheexam.110Conjunction(合取關(guān)系)110Implication蘊涵關(guān)系IfAnnhaspassedherdrivingtest,herparentshaveboughtheraPorsche.

AnnhaspassedherdrivingtestandherparentshaveboughtheraPorsche.AnnhasnotpassedherdrivingtestandherparentshaveboughtheraPorsche.AnnhasnotpassedherdrivingtestandherparentshavenotboughtheraPorsche.111Implication蘊涵關(guān)系111Equivalence等同關(guān)系Marywillpasstheexamifherresultonthewrittentestissatisfactory.Marywillpassthe