性格心理學(xué)社會(huì)認(rèn)知取向的應(yīng)用課件

性格心理學(xué)：社會(huì)認(rèn)知取向的應(yīng)用東吳大學(xué)心理學(xué)系教授王叢桂SoochowUniversityDepartmentofPsychology壹、自我基模selfschema自我基模是指與自我有關(guān)的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)，經(jīng)由經(jīng)驗(yàn)形成，組織與引導(dǎo)處理與自我有關(guān)的訊息。個(gè)體可已有多個(gè)與自我有關(guān)的基模組成一個(gè)自我基模組群familyofselves，以組成獨(dú)特的自我。其中或許會(huì)有原形我(prototypicself)，亦即個(gè)人感覺(jué)上真正的我，也可能有fuzzyselves，亦即不清楚的自我部分。BELIEFSABOUTTHESELFANDSELF-SCHEMASSelf-SchemasandReaction-TimeMethodsReaction-timemeasures:experimentalmethodsinwhichanexperimenterrecordsnotonlythecontentofaperson’sresponse,butalsohowlongittakesthepersontorespondPeoplewhopossessaself-schemawithregardtoagivendomainofsociallifeshouldbefasterinrespondingtoquestionsregardingthatlifedomainBELIEFSABOUTTHESELFANDSELF-SCHEMASSelf-SchemasandReaction-TimeMethodsMarkus(1977)identifiedpeoplewhopossessedaself-schemaregardingindependence

ParticipantsratedthemselvesashighorlowonindependenceParticipantsindicatedthedegreetowhichthepersonalitycharacteristicwasimportanttothemThosewhohadanextremehighorlowself-ratingandthoughtindependence/dependencewasimportantwerejudgedasschematicParticipantsthenaskedtoratewhetheraseriesofadjectives(someofwhichweresemanticallyrelatedtoindependence/depen-dence)weredescriptiveofthemselvesSchematicsmadethesejudgmentsfaster例子.Sexualabuse對(duì)自我基模的影響，Sexualselfschema研究受過(guò)性侵害的女性，在性自我基模量表上得分較低，覺(jué)得自己比較不浪漫與熱情，在性經(jīng)驗(yàn)中也有比較多的負(fù)面情緒。AndersenandCyranowskifoundthatwomenwithhighscoresontheSexualSelf-SchemaScale(particularlythosewithpositivesexualself-schemas)WeremoresexuallyactiveExperiencedgreatersexualarousalandsexualpleasureWeremoreabletobeinvolvedinromanticloverelationships“Co-schematics(womenwhohadbothpositiveandnegativeschemas)”foundtoexperienceHighlevelsofinvolvementwithsexualpartnersHighlevelsofsexualanxietyWorkingself自我基模由多個(gè)基模組合而成，不同的社會(huì)情境會(huì)引發(fā)不同的基模組合（不同的工作自我）例如：金控集團(tuán)財(cái)務(wù)長(zhǎng)vs.傳教士一、自我基模的動(dòng)機(jī)：

提升自尊或是維持一致性自我概念

Selfenhancement(自我提升）Tesseretal.(1989)

人們有趨向?qū)ψ晕倚纬烧嬗^點(diǎn)的偏誤，偏好對(duì)自我正面的訊息。.人們有維持自我是一致與可預(yù)測(cè)的動(dòng)機(jī)，會(huì)去從事可以證實(shí)自我信念的活動(dòng)(selectivelyseek;selectivelyremember;activelytrytoprovetoothers)來(lái)加強(qiáng)自我概念。實(shí)驗(yàn)：受試自評(píng)自己令人喜歡或不喜歡，再看另一喜歡或不喜歡他的人對(duì)他的評(píng)價(jià)，Ss花較多時(shí)間看符合自我評(píng)估者的評(píng)語(yǔ)。對(duì)與自我概念相反的訊息會(huì)更加努力表現(xiàn)符合自我概念的行為,以便扭轉(zhuǎn)別人的印象，即使是作壞事以維持壞形象。Self-verification自我證實(shí)(Swann&Read,1981)

自我證實(shí)與生活適應(yīng)憂(yōu)鬱癥者有負(fù)面自我基模，會(huì)尋求符合負(fù)面自我與自己有憂(yōu)鬱癥的訊息（因此親友說(shuō)她有多好，反而會(huì)刺激她去證明自己有多差）(Giesler,Josephs,&Swann,1996)與配偶關(guān)係：具有正面自我基模者對(duì)看重自己的配偶承諾度高於看不起自己的配偶。具有負(fù)面自我基模者對(duì)看不起自己的配偶承諾度高於看重自己的配偶。

Cognitive-affectivecrossfire(Swann的觀點(diǎn)）Self-verification和Self-enhancement可能互相衝突。self-enhancement:

誇大自己的長(zhǎng)處,只記得自己的優(yōu)點(diǎn),以便維繫較高的自尊。self-verification:

使自己「像自己」。情緒上也許很難接受,但認(rèn)知上我比較接受和我自己看法一致的訊息，我實(shí)際上是(認(rèn)為自己是)壞人,我就很難接受別人認(rèn)為我不是。低自尊的人會(huì)有認(rèn)知（我是壞人，我要表現(xiàn)的像壞人）與感受（我是壞人，壞人讓人討厭）的衝突。例子：羅福助曾聲言「我的黑夜比別人的白天還白」動(dòng)機(jī)衝突與自我不一致的訊息會(huì)引發(fā)適應(yīng)不良.BrownandMcGill(1989):要求Ss報(bào)告過(guò)去十二個(gè)月中發(fā)生的正性事件，並記載Ss健康狀況(SsselfreportorSsnumberofvisitstotheuniversitycenterinthesecondstudy.)結(jié)果對(duì)自尊高者，正性事件發(fā)生數(shù)與健康成正比，低自尊者正性事件發(fā)生數(shù)與健康成反比。

Whathappenswhenthetwomotivesconflict?Evidencesuggestswegenerallypreferpositivefeedbackbutprefernegativefeedbackinrelationtonegativeself-viewsPositivelifeeventscanbebadforone’shealthiftheyconflictwithanegativeself-conceptanddisruptone’snegativeidentityThereareindividualdifferencesinthisregardWemaybemoreorientedtowardself-enhancementinsomerelationshipsandself-verificationinotherrelationships

二、自我基模的引導(dǎo)動(dòng)機(jī)（目標(biāo)與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)）Possibleselves:(Markus&Nurius,1986)個(gè)人認(rèn)為自己可能成為何種人？他想要成為何種人？他怕成為何種人？Markus認(rèn)為如果行為的結(jié)果與自我有關(guān)或者是可能自我時(shí)會(huì)比較容易執(zhí)行例如成為體態(tài)輕盈的人可以在認(rèn)知、情感與身體方面的自我概念產(chǎn)生的滿(mǎn)足感高過(guò)飲食的當(dāng)下滿(mǎn)足，比較容易進(jìn)行節(jié)食。學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)vs.表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)

Learningvs.PerformancegoalsDweck

研究成就動(dòng)機(jī)時(shí)提出之概念，她發(fā)現(xiàn)人們學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)會(huì)有兩種不同評(píng)價(jià)自我表現(xiàn)之目標(biāo)學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)：從事學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)之目的在於增進(jìn)學(xué)習(xí)能力表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)：從事學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)之目的在於給予他人好印象與避免困窘學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)會(huì)引導(dǎo)個(gè)體嘗試各種學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)，表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)會(huì)避免會(huì)導(dǎo)致失敗的活動(dòng)LEARNINGvs.PERFORMANCEGOALSElliottandDweck(1988)induced

誘發(fā)learningversusperformancegoalsamonggradeschoolstudentsperformingacognitivetaskSometoldthattheywereperformingataskthatwouldsharpenmentalskillsOtherstoldtheywereperformingataskthatwouldbeevaluatedbyexpertsStudents’beliefsintheirabilityonthetaskwerealsomanipulatedPeoplewhohadacombinationofperformancegoalsandlowbeliefsintheirabilitywerelesslikelythanotherstodevelopusefulstrategiesonthetask實(shí)驗(yàn)：測(cè)量學(xué)童思考內(nèi)容（請(qǐng)學(xué)童學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)大聲說(shuō)出自己的思考?xì)v程），結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)誘發(fā)：學(xué)習(xí)或表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)以及學(xué)童對(duì)自我能力的知覺(jué)高低，對(duì)改進(jìn)策略與負(fù)面情緒有交互作用ElliottandDweck(1988)recordedthedegreetowhichpeoplespontaneouslyexpressednegativeemotionswhileworkingonthetaskPerformancegoalparticipantsexpressedmuchtensionandanxietywhenperformingthetask“Mystomachhurts”(Elliott&Dweck,1988,p.10)Performancegoalsprovidesinsightintowhatwecommonlycall“testanxiety”Dweck’ssocial-cognitiveanalysissuggeststhatonemightintervenebytryingtochangepeople’spatternsofthinking隱含理論implicittheories（個(gè)體持有的會(huì)引導(dǎo)個(gè)體思維，但難以明言的理論）:

是導(dǎo)致個(gè)體會(huì)採(cǎi)用學(xué)習(xí)或表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)之原因人們對(duì)自我特質(zhì)有一些解釋理論，其中最重要的是該特質(zhì)（智力、能力等）是否可以改變？實(shí)體理論(entitytheory):不可改變成長(zhǎng)理論(incrementaltheory):可以改變Dweck&Leggett(1988)發(fā)現(xiàn)幼兒認(rèn)為智力是不可改變者會(huì)採(cǎi)取表現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的評(píng)價(jià)方式。認(rèn)為智力是增長(zhǎng)性可改變者會(huì)採(cǎi)用學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)。隱含性人格理論同時(shí)也適用於其他人格特質(zhì)與領(lǐng)域（如人際關(guān)係）例如：懶是否是可以改變的Grant&Dweck(1999)將學(xué)習(xí)或表現(xiàn)改為比較適用於一般性情境與特質(zhì)的名稱(chēng)Judgmentgoalvs.developmentgoal判斷目的vs.發(fā)展目的評(píng)價(jià)自我的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)STANDARDSOFEVALUATIONGoalsandstandardsarepsychologicallydistinctmechanismsGoalsareaimsonehopestoachieveinthefutureStandardsarecriteriausedtoevaluateeventsinthepresentJustasitisvaluabletodistinguishamongqualitativelydifferenttypesofgoals,itisvaluabletodistinguishamongqualitativelydifferenttypesofevaluativestandards自我導(dǎo)引動(dòng)機(jī)來(lái)自自我評(píng)價(jià)：Self-discrepancytheory(Higgins,1989)認(rèn)為人們可能有四種自我的內(nèi)在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：設(shè)定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)者:自己vs.別人標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的性質(zhì):理想vs.義務(wù)自己設(shè)定的(Iwantto...)個(gè)人的理想Idealself

別人為自己設(shè)定的(Mymotherwantsmeto...) (Iwantto...)

責(zé)任或義務(wù)Oughtself (Imust...)1.不符自己標(biāo)準(zhǔn):失望2.不符他人標(biāo)準(zhǔn):shameembarrassment3.不符自己理想與道德標(biāo)準(zhǔn):guiltandselfcontempt4.不符他人理想與道德標(biāo)準(zhǔn):agitated,threatened,fearful (我媽知道我作弊，她會(huì)殺了我)不同理想自我差距引發(fā)不同情緒Actualself低於責(zé)任我oughtself:guilt,ashamed,resentful,fears,anxiety-relateddisorderActualself低於理想我idealself:disappointed,frustrated,unfulfilled,sad,depressedHiggins,Bond,Klein,&Strauman(1986)identifiedtwogroups:Thosewhopredominantlyhaveactual/idealdiscrepanciesThosewhopredominantlyhaveactual/oughtdiscrepanciesInasubsequentsession,emotionalreactionswereassessedastheyenvisionedthemselvesexperiencinganegativelifeevent.想像負(fù)面事件Althoughallparticipantsenvisionedthesameevent:Thosewhohadmostlyactual/idealdiscrepanciestendedtobecomesadbutnotanxious

Thosewhohadmostlyactual/oughtdiscrepanciesbecameanxiousbutnotsad

3.

影響自尊的三個(gè)因素：1.差距有多大2.自我差距所在的領(lǐng)域的重要性如學(xué)業(yè)成就技藝表現(xiàn)﹑還是金錢(qián)收入，3.當(dāng)時(shí)注意力是否聚焦（focus）在差距上Promotionfocus:理想自我引導(dǎo)我們注意力放在成就動(dòng)機(jī)上時(shí)。與此有關(guān)的成就導(dǎo)引出愉快(pleasure)感受Preventionfocus:義務(wù)責(zé)任自我(oughtself)使我們注意安全與責(zé)任，以及避免傷害。與此有關(guān)的成就導(dǎo)引出抒解(relief)感受。人們?cè)谔嵘蚴穷A(yù)防取向上有個(gè)別差異A“GeneralPrinciples”ApproachtoPersonalityPersonalityvariables”explainwhatpeopledoonaverage“Situationalfactors”explainvariationsaroundtheaverageHiggins’sworkisageneralprinciplesapproachtounderstandingpersonalityandsituationalinfluencesPeople’sknowledge—includingtheiridealandoughtstandardsforperformance—explainsconsistenciesintheiremotionandbehavior,sinceknowledgeisanenduringaspectofpersonalityKnowledgemechanismsalsoexplainsituationalinfluences.Differentsituationsactivatedifferentaspectsofknowledgeand,insodoing,bringaboutdifferentemotionalandmotivationalpatterns社會(huì)認(rèn)知理論在臨床上的應(yīng)用Assumptionscommontotechniqueofcognitivetherapy:

認(rèn)知治療的基本假設(shè)CognitionsarecriticalindeterminingfeelingsandbehaviorsThecognitionsofinteresttendtobespecifictosituationsorcategoriesofsituations,thoughtheimportanceofsomegeneralizedexpectanciesandbeliefsisrecognized.Psychopathologyarisesfromdistorted,incorrect,maladaptivecognitionsconcerningtheself,others,andeventsintheworldFaulty,maladaptivecognitionsleadtoproblematicfeelingsandbehaviors,andtheseinturnleadtofurtherproblematiccognitionsCognitivetherapyinvolvesacollaborativeeffortbetweentherapistandpatienttodeterminewhichdistorted,maladaptivecognitionsarecreatingthedifficultyandthentoreplacethemwithothermorerealistic,adaptivecognitionsTheunconsciousisonlyimportantinsofaraspatientsmaynotbeawareoftheirroutine,habitualwaysofthinkingaboutthemselvesandlife.Theemphasisisonchangesinspecificproblematiccognitionsratherthanonglobalpersonalitychange壓力與因應(yīng)stressandcopingLazarus：壓力觀點(diǎn)1.Stress：為個(gè)體覺(jué)得環(huán)境中事件不是他現(xiàn)有的資源可以因應(yīng)，並危及其身心與well-being時(shí)，個(gè)體處?kù)秹毫顟B(tài)下2.Primaryappraisal：個(gè)體感覺(jué)在壓力下時(shí)，會(huì)評(píng)價(jià)他當(dāng)下使否受威脅或有危險(xiǎn)，例如：自尊是否受損3.Secondaryappraisal：個(gè)體評(píng)估他是否有內(nèi)外在資源可以預(yù)防、克服危險(xiǎn)，或改善狀況STRESSANDCOPING問(wèn)題取向因應(yīng)Problem-focusedcoping:attemptstocopebyalteringfeaturesofastressfulsituation情緒取向因應(yīng)Emotion-focusedcoping:copinginwhichanindividualstrivestoimprovehisorherinternalemotionalstate(e.g.,byemotionaldistancingortheseekingofsocialsupport)ResearchbyFolkman,Lazarus,andcolleaguesoncopingsuggeststhefollowingconclusions:Althoughtheuseofsomecopingmethodsareinfluencedbypersonalityfactors,theuseofmanycopingmethodsarestronglyinfluencedbysituationalcontextThegreaterthelevelofstressandeffortstocope,thepoorerthephysicalhealthandthegreaterthelikelihoodofpsychologicalsymptoms;thegreaterthesenseofmastery,thebetterthephysicalandpsychologicalhealthIngeneral,planfulproblemsolvingismoreadaptivethanescapeavoidanceorconfrontativecoping

Meichenbaum採(cǎi)用Lazarus的認(rèn)知壓力觀點(diǎn)，提出StressInoculationTraining1.教導(dǎo)個(gè)案認(rèn)識(shí)壓力的認(rèn)知本質(zhì)，覺(jué)察會(huì)自動(dòng)引發(fā)壓力的思考與其負(fù)面影響（stress-engendering,automaticthoughtsandtheirnegativeeffects

）。例：個(gè)體面對(duì)困難時(shí)可能會(huì)有自動(dòng)化的負(fù)面思考，「我不可能考好」…之類(lèi)2.教導(dǎo)個(gè)案因應(yīng)壓力與改變錯(cuò)誤認(rèn)知(1)如以放鬆訓(xùn)練取代面對(duì)壓力情境引起的焦慮。(2)重新組織壓力情境的認(rèn)知，使其成為可處理的情境，如定義問(wèn)題，可能策略，策略建立與評(píng)估(3)自我覆頌因應(yīng)正面陳述「我一定做的到」，「一次一件事」，「只管當(dāng)下我要什麼？」(4)Thoughtimageryrehearsal心像預(yù)演(5)真實(shí)生活演練Elli’sRational-EmotiveTheory（RET）ABC”ofrational-emotivetherapy(Ellis,1997)AnActivating(A)eventmayleadtoaconsequence(C)suchasanemotionalreaction“We...createBeliefs(B’s)betweenAandC.OurB’saboutAlargelydetermineourresponsetoit”(Ellis&Tafrate1997,p.31)假設(shè)：心理疾病是因?yàn)椴缓侠淼男拍罴皩?duì)自我的非理性陳述導(dǎo)致，主要的非理性陳述是我們一定要（must,should）；我們必須（haveto）；我們無(wú)法（cannotdoanything）非理性信念1.Itisadirenecessityforadulthumanstobelovedorapprovedbyvirtuallyeverysignificantotherpersonintheircommunity.2.Oneabsolutelymustbecompetent,adequateandachievinginallimportantrespectsorelseoneisaninadequate,worthlessperson.3.Peopleabsolutelymustactconsideratelyandfairlyandtheyaredamnablevillainsiftheydonot.Theyaretheirbadacts.4.Itisawfulandterriblewhenthingsarenotthewayonewouldverymuchlikethemtobe.5.Emotionaldisturbanceismainlyexternallycausedandpeoplehavelittleornoabilitytoincreaseordecreasetheirdysfunctionalfeelingsandbehaviors.6.Ifsomethingisormaybedangerousorfearsome,thenoneshouldbeconstantlyandexcessivelyconcernedaboutitandshouldkeepdwellingonthepossibilityofitoccurring.7.Onecannotandmustnotfacelife'sresponsibilitiesanddifficultiesanditiseasiertoavoidthem.8.Onemustbequitedependentonothersandneedthemandyoucannotmainlyrunone'sownlife.9.One'spasthistoryisanall-importantdeterminerofone'spresentbehaviorandbecausesomethingoncestronglyaffectedone'slife,itshouldindefinitelyhaveasimilareffect.10.Otherpeople'sdisturbancesarehorribleandonemustfeelupsetaboutthem.11.Thereisinvariablyaright,preciseandperfectsolutiontohumanproblemsanditisawfulifthisperfectsolutionisnotfound.ExamplesofthetypeofnegativethinkingFaultyreasoning.“Ifailedonthiseffort,soImustbeincompetent.”Dysfunctionalexpectancies.“Ifsomethingcangowrongforme,itwill.”

Negativeself-views.“Ialwaystendtofeelthatothersarebetterthanme.”Maladaptiveattributions.“I’mapoortesttakerbecauseIamanervousper-son.”Memorydistortions.“Lifeishorriblenowandalwayshasbeenthisway.”Maladaptiveattention.“AllIcanthinkaboutishowhorribleitwillbeifIfail.”Self-defeatingstrategies.“I’llputmyselfdownbeforeothersdo.”伍、Beck對(duì)憂(yōu)鬱癥的認(rèn)知觀點(diǎn)憂(yōu)鬱癥成因是：Cognitivetriad三個(gè)認(rèn)知1.負(fù)面自我觀（negativeviewoftheself）：Iaminadequate,undesirable,worthless.2.負(fù)面世界觀（negativeviewoftheworld）如：世界不公平…3.負(fù)面（未來(lái)）前景（negativeviewofthefuture）如：人生只有苦難除此之外，憂(yōu)鬱者傾向作負(fù)面訊息處理，例如：擴(kuò)大某人對(duì)自己的不喜歡為沒(méi)有人喜歡我ResearchonFaultyCognitionsMuchresearchinthe1980’sand1990’sprovidedevidencethatwasconsistentwithBeck’smodelComparedtonondepressedindividuals,depressedpersonsFocusedmoreonthemselvesHadmoreaccessiblenegativeself-constructsHadabiastowardpessimismratherthanoptimism,particularlyinrelationtotheselfMuchoftheearlyresearchoncognitionanddepressionemployed“concurrent”researchdesignsDrawback:hardtoknowifrelationsbetweencognitionanddepressionreflectInfluenceofcognitionondepressionInfluenceofdepressedemotionsoncognitionInfluenceofsomethirdfactorthataffectsbothcognitionanddepressionInrecentyearsinvestigatorshaveturnedtoprospectiveresearchdesignsHankin,Fraley,andAbela(2005)measuredparticipantstendenciestoengageinnegativepatternsofthinkingthatwerethoughttopredisposepersonstobecomingdepressedThenaskedthemtocompleteadailydiaryfor35daysIndividualdifferencesinthetendencytothinkingnegativelypredictedthesubsequentoccurrenceofdepressivesymptoms治療任務(wù)Whathappenstothefaultycognitionswhenthedepressionhaslifted?Oncehavingexperiencedaseriousdepression,tendencytowardrelapse復(fù)發(fā)Faultycognitionsthatmakethepersonvulnerabletodepressionlatent;onlybecomemanifestunderstressTaskoftherapy:effectfundamentalchangeinthesecognitions;makethepersonawareoftheconditionsunderwhichtheymanifest要改變錯(cuò)誤認(rèn)知需瞭解會(huì)引發(fā)錯(cuò)誤認(rèn)知的狀況CognitiveTherapyofDepression

DesignedtoidentifyandcorrectdistortedconceptualizationsanddysfunctionalbeliefsGenerallyconsistsof15to25sessionsatweeklyintervalsInvolveshighlyspecificlearningexperiencesdesignedtoteachthepatienttoMonitornegative,automaticthoughts監(jiān)控自動(dòng)產(chǎn)生的負(fù)面思考Recognizehowthesethoughtsleadtoproblematicfeelingsandbehaviors理解確認(rèn)負(fù)面思考如何導(dǎo)致問(wèn)題情緒與行為Examinetheevidenceforandagainstthesethoughts檢驗(yàn)支持或否定這些負(fù)面思考的證據(jù)Substitutemorereality-orientedinterpretationsforthesebiasedcognitions以比較符合現(xiàn)實(shí)的認(rèn)知取代偏差認(rèn)知Beck’scognitivetherapyhasbeenexpandedtoincludethetreatmentofotherdifficultiesAnxietypersonalitydisordersdrugabusemaritaldifficultiesEachdifficultyisassociatedwithadistinctivepatternofbeliefsRecentevidencesuggeststhattherapeuticchangefollowscognitivechangePSYCHOPATHOLOGY:MODELING,SELF-CONCEPTIONS,ANDPERCEIVEDSELF-EFFICACY

Bandura

的觀點(diǎn)Maladaptivebehavior,includingfearsandphobiasLearnedasaresultof直接或觀察經(jīng)驗(yàn)DirectexperienceExposuretoinadequateor“sick”modelsMaintainedthroughdirectandvicariousreinforcement經(jīng)由直接或代理增強(qiáng)維持不適應(yīng)行為Social-cognitivetheoryemphasizestheroleofdysfunctionalexpectanciesandself-conceptionsPeoplemayerroneouslyexpectpainfuleventstofollowsomeeventsorpaintobeassociatedwithspecificsituationsTheythenmayactToavoidcertainsituations逃避這些情境Inawaythatcreatesthesituationtheyweretryingtoavoid以致於創(chuàng)造出要逃避的情境，例如採(cǎi)用拖延的策略逃避可能的失敗PerceivedinefficacyplaysacentralroleinanxietyanddepressionPeoplewithperceptionsoflowself-efficacy

inrelationtopotentialthreatsexperiencehighanxietyarousal對(duì)某個(gè)威脅的低自我功效感導(dǎo)致高焦慮ItisnotthethreateningeventpersebuttheperceivedinefficacyincopingwithitthatisfundamentaltoanxietyTheperceptionofinabilitytocopemaybecomplicatedbytheperceivedinabilitytocope,afear-of-fearresponsethatcanleadtopanic無(wú)能因應(yīng)的知覺(jué)的惡性循環(huán)PerceivedinefficacyinrelationtorewardingoutcomesleadstodepressionIndividualspronetodepression易得憂(yōu)鬱癥者：Imposeexcessivelyhighgoalsandstandards過(guò)高的目標(biāo)或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)Blamethemselvesforfallingshortofthem未達(dá)目標(biāo)或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)時(shí)會(huì)自我譴責(zé)Lowself-efficacymaycontributetodiminishedperformance,leadingtofallingevenfurtherbelowstandardsandadditionalself-blame低自我功效的惡性循環(huán)DiscrepanciesbetweenperformanceandstandardsleadtohighmotivationwhenpeoplebelievetheycanaccomplishthegoalBeliefsthatthegoalsarebeyondone’scapabilitiesbecausetheyareunrealisticwillleadtoabandoningthegoalandperhapstoapathy,butnottodepression.認(rèn)為目標(biāo)不切實(shí)際無(wú)法達(dá)成者會(huì)放棄嘗試但不會(huì)導(dǎo)致憂(yōu)鬱Depressionoccurswhenapersonfeelsinefficaciousinrelationtoagoalbutbelievesthegoaltobereasonable.當(dāng)認(rèn)為目標(biāo)合理，但與目標(biāo)有關(guān)的自我功效過(guò)低時(shí)會(huì)導(dǎo)致憂(yōu)鬱Self-EfficacyandHealth自我功效與健康

Strong,positiveself-efficacybeliefsaregoodforyourhealthWeak,negativeself-efficacybeliefsarebadforyourhealthPerceptionsofself-efficacytopracticesafersexualbehaviorhavebeenrelatedtotheprobabilityofadoptingsafersexualpractices

對(duì)安全性行為的自我功效信念會(huì)影響是否使用安全性行為策略Modeling,goal-setting,andothertechniqueshavebeenusedtoincreaseself-efficacybeliefsandtherebyreduceriskybehaviorSelf-EfficacyandHealth

Changesinself-efficacybeliefsalsohavebeenfoundtobeofimportanceinrecoveryfromillnessSometimesindividualsrecoveringfromaheartattackmayhaveunrealisticallyhighself-efficacybeliefsandexercisebeyondwhatisconstructiveforthem.Banduraandhisassociates’researchonperceivedself-efficacyandimmunesystemfunctioningSnakephobicstestedunder3conditions:Baselinecontrol:noexposuretoasnakePerceivedself-efficacyacquisitionphase:subjectswereassistedingainingcopingefficacyPerceivedmaximalself-efficacyphase,oncetheyhaddevelopedacompletesenseofcopingefficacySmallamountofbloodwasdrawnfromthesubjectsandanalyzedforthepresenceofcellsthatareknowntohelpregulatetheimmunesystemAnalysesindicatedthatincreasesinself-efficacybeliefswereassociatedwithincreasesinenhancedimmunesystemfunctioning(increasedlevelofhelperTcells)自我功效與免疫系統(tǒng)有正相關(guān)Althoughtheeffectsofstresscanbenegative,thegrowthofperceivedefficacyoverstressorscanhavevaluableadaptivepropertiesatthelevelofimmunesystemfunctioningTherapeuticChange:

ModelingandGuidedMastery