世界銀行-印度尼西亞國家氣候與發(fā)展報(bào)告（英）

ChinaCountryClimateandDevelopmentReporti

PublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorized

EASTASIA

PACIFIC

INDONESIA

WorldBankGroup

April,2023

I

INDONESIACOUNTRYCLIMATEANDDEVELOPMENTREPORT

?2023TheWorldBankGroup

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II

EASTASIAPACIFIC

INDONESIA

COUNTRY

CLIMATEAND

DEVELOPMENT

REPORT

APRIL,2023

CONTENTS

III

INDONESIACOUNTRYCLIMATEANDDEVELOPMENTREPORT

012138

Climate&Developmentin

Indonesia

Commitments

&Capacities

Enabling

Economic

Policies&

Institutions

59

Economic

ImpactsofClimateActions

77

Climate&

Development

Policy

Framework

IV

FIGURES

Figure1

ImportantDevelopmentTransitions 3

Figure2

AccelerationinIncomeConvergence 3

Figure3

GHGEmissionsHighbutSlowing 4

Figure4

PerCapitaGHGEmissionsStartingtoDecline 4

Figure5

PerCapitaEmissionsRemainBelowThoseofMajorDevelopedEconomiesandinLineWithDevelopingCountryPeers 5

Figure6

GrowthBecomingLessCarbonIntensive 5

Figure7

SomeSignsofRelativeDecoupling 5

Figure8SourcesofIndonesia'sEmissionsoverTime

7

Figure9

TheRateofDeforestationHasFalleninRecentYears 8

Figure10

CoalintheEnergyMixhasIncreased 8

Figure11

EnergySupplyDrivenbyElectricity 9

Figure12CoalDominatesPowerGeneration

9

Figure13

ManufacturingEmissionsIncreasedalongwithEfficiency 9

Figure14

PeatlandAgriculture:CostsandBenefits 10

Figure15

IncomeLossfromPrematureDeaths 10

Figure16

RisingIncidenceofClimate-relatedDisasters 12

Figure17

ClimateChangewillReduceAgriculturalYieldsWithoutAdaptiveMeasures 15

Figure18Deforestationextentperyear(mil.ha)

15

Figure19

OilPalmLivelihoodsareConcentratedinKalimantanandSumatraLowlands 17

Figure20

LendingExposureofIndonesianBankstoTransition-sensitiveSectorsisHigh 18

Figure21

Indonesia’sStockMarketsareWeighedTowardEmissions-exposedSectors 18

Figure22

ReducingSupplyof,andDemandfor,Carbon-intensiveResources 19

Figure23

PotentialtoAccelerateConvergenceinPerCapitaWealth 20

Figure24

IncludingThroughFasterGrowthinHumanCapitalStock 20

Figure25

PerCapitaEmissionsofMajorEconomiesunderStatedTargets 23

Figure26

AbsoluteEmissionsofMajorEconomiesunderStatedTargets 23

Figure27

2030CommitmentsPerCapita:Top-10Emitters 24

Figure28

PossiblePost-2030PathwaysforIndonesia 24

Figure29

ConditionalandUnconditional2030NDCTargets 25

Figure30

PlannedSectoralContributionsto2030NDCTargets 25

Figure31

TheLandUsePolicyFramework:AChronology 28

Figure32

RenewablesasaShareofTotalEnergyConsumption 29

Figure33

EmissionsfromLandCoverChangesinRapidlyDevelopingCities 34

Figure34

EmissionsfromProvisionofUrbanServices 34

Figure35

HighbutDecreasingFossilFuelSupport 41

Figure36

MostSupportisGearedtoConsumers 41

Figure37

MostSupportGoesTowardPetroleum 41

Figure38

ResultinginLowPetrolEnd-userPrices 41

V

INDONESIACOUNTRYCLIMATEANDDEVELOPMENTREPORT

Figure39

AndLowResidentialElectricityPrices 41

Figure40

ExpectedContingentLiabilitiesfromNaturalDisasters 43

Figure41

GreenDebtMarketSize 49

Figure42

MaturityofGreenDebt 49

Figure43

TypesofGreenDebt 49

Figure44

UseofGreenDebtProceeds 49

Figure45

TariffsonGreenGoodsareLow 53

Figure46

ButNTMscanbeBurdensome 53

Figure47

ContributingtoHigherImportCosts 53

Figure48

AndLossofCompetitiveness 53

Figure49

GoodSignsonthePrevalenceofSomeGreenPracticesinIndonesia 55

Figure50

ForeignandLargeFirmshaveHigherGreenPracticeScoresinIndonesia 55

Figure51

IndonesianFirmsPerformWellRelativetoFirmsinSelectedECACountries 55

Figure52

ElectricityandEnergyUseareWeaklyAssociatedwithGreenPractices 55

Figure53

ReasonsforFirms'(Lackof)AdoptionofEnergyEfficiencyMeasures 56

Figure54

PaybackPeriodsforEnergyEfficiencyMeasures 56

Figure55

GreenTasksbyOccupationCategory 58

Figure56

WomenareUnder-representedinGreenJobs 58

Figure57

OverviewofModelledScenarios 61

Figure58

PoliciestoReduceLand-basedEmissionshaveSignificantEconomicCo-benefits 64

Figure59

AcceleratedDecarbonizationisConsistentwithNetZeroEmissionsBefore2060 65

Figure60

ThisWouldRequire50percentHigherInvestmentComparedtoBAU 65

Figure61RenewableGenerationCapacityIncreasesStronglyafter2030

65

Figure62FossilFuelsRemainintheGenerationMixbutatGreatlyReducedLevelsthrough2040

65

Figure63

AchievingDecarbonizationObjectives 69

Figure64

WithPotentialPositiveGrowthPayoffs 69

Figure65

ForeignInvestmentscanAlleviateTrade-offsinMoreAmbitiousScenarios 70

Figure66

ThereWillBeGainsandLossesAcrossSectors 70

Figure67

ImpactsonEmployment 72

Figure68

ImpactonHouseholdExpenditure 72

Figure69

DriversofExpenditureChange 72

Figure70

ImpactonPrices 72

Figure71

ImpactonExpenditurebyWorkerType 72

Figure72

ImpactonPoverty 72

Figure73

TradeImpactsofNDCsareSlightlyNegative 74

Figure74

PartlyDrivenbyDecliningManufacturingExports 74

Figure75

BuildingBlocksfortheTransition 77

Figure76

PrioritizationApproachforRecommendations 77

Figure77

TimeframeandExpectedImpactofSupply-(S)andDemand-side(D)MitigationMeasures 86

Figure78

TimeframeandExpectedImpactofAdaptationMeasures 90

Figure79

TimeframeandExpectedImpactofEnablingConditionMeasures 97

VI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ThisCountryClimateandDevelopmentReport(CCDR)wasacollaborativeeffortoftheWorldBank,InternationalFinanceCorporation(IFC),andMulti-lateralInsuranceandGuaranteeAgency(MIGA)undertheoverallguidanceofManuelaV.Ferro(WorldBankRegionalVicePresident),AlfonsoGarciaMora(IFCRegionalVicePresident),EthiopisTafara(MIGAVicePresidentandChiefRisk,LegalandAdminOfficer),SatuKristiinaKahkonen(WorldBankCountryDirectorforIndonesiaandTimor-Leste),HassanZaman(WorldBankRegionalDirector,EquitableGrowth,FinanceandInstitutions),BenoitBosquet(WorldBankRegionalDirector,SustainableDevelopment),Kim-SeeLim(IFCDirector),MerliMargaretBaroudi(MIGADirector,EconomicsandSustainability),AadityaMattoo(ChiefEconomist,EAP),LarsChristianMoller(WorldBankPracticeManager,MacroeconomicsTradeandInvestment),AnnJeannetteGlauber(WorldBankPracticeManager,Environment,NaturalResources,andtheBlueEconomy),JohnNasir(IFCPracticeManager),andBolormaaAmgaabazar(OperationsManagerforIndonesiaandTimor-Leste).

TheCCDRwaspreparedbyacoreteamledbyHabibRab(LeadEconomist)andDavidKaczan(Sr.Economist)andincludingAbdoulayeSy(LeadEcon-omist),AchimSchmillen(ProgramLeader,HumanDevelopment),AndhytaFirsellyUtami(EnvironmentalEconomist),AndredeAquino(ProgramLeader,SustainableDevelopment),BryceQuillin(Sr.Economist),BipulSingh(Sr.En-ergySpecialist),ClaudiaVasquez(ProgramLeader,Infrastructure),EugeniuCroitor(MIGARiskManagementOfficer),FrancescoStrobbe(LeadFinancialSectorSpecialist),GauravTrivedi(FinancialSectorConsultant),HasanDudu(Sr.Economist),HectorPollitt(Sr.Economist),MuthukumaraS.Mani(LeadEnvironmentalEconomist),RalphVanDoorn(Sr.Economist),ReidinarWardoyo(CommunicationsSpecialist),StephanClaudeFredericGarnier(ProgramLead-er,Infrastructure),TehminaNawab(StrategyOfficer),UtzPape(Sr.Economist),YulitaSariSoepardjo(ProgramAssistant),andZahraKarimDidarali(ClimateChangeConsultant).TheCCDRsynthesizesfindingscontainedinanalyticalworkundertakenbyanextendedtechnicalteam(listedbelow).

Detailedfeedback,suggestions,andcommentswerereceivedfrompeerreview-ers:RichardDamania(WorldBankChiefEconomist,SustainableDevelopment),VivekPathak(IFCDirector,ClimateBusiness),SomikV.Lall(LeadEconomist),

ApurvaSanghi(LeadEconomist),GiovanniRuta(LeadEnvironmentalEcono-mist),andFernandoBlanco(IFCPrincipalEconomist).CommentswerealsogratefullyreceivedfromAhmadBaihaki(Sr.FisheriesConsultant),AhmadouMoustaphaNdiaye(Director,EquitableGrowth,Finance,andInstitutions),Al-exanderLotsch(SeniorClimateChangeSpecialist),AndyMason(LeadEcono-mist),AnnaFruttero(Sr.Economist),ChristianSchoder(Jr.ProfessionalOfficer),ClaudioRojas(OperationsOfficer),CraigMeisner(Sr.Economist),DanielHalim

(Economist),DinaUmali-Deininger(PracticeManager),DuongLe(Economist),EthelSennhauser(Director,StrategyandOperations),FlorentMcIsaac(Econ-

VII

INDONESIACOUNTRYCLIMATEANDDEVELOPMENTREPORT

omist),FrancescadeNicola(Sr.Economist),GeorgesBiancoDarido(LeadUrbanTransportSpecialist),GuillermoDiaz-Fanas(PublicPrivatePartnershipsSpecialist),HelenGall(PublicPrivatePartnershipsConsultant),IraDorband(Jr.ProfessionalOfficer),JamesP.Walsh(IMF),JasonRuss(Sr.Economist),JennyChao(Sr.PublicPrivatePartnershipsSpecialist),JonathanLindsay(LeadCounsel),JukkaStrand(Sr.InfrastructureFinanceSpecialist),JulieRieger(Chief

Counsel),KhafiWeekes(PublicPrivatePartnershipsConsultant),LestariBoedi-ono(Sr.ExternalAffairsOfficer),MasudMozammel(Sr.ExternalAffairsOfficer),MustafaZakirHussain(Manager),NickKeyes(Sr.ExternalAffairsOfficer),OlivierMahul(PracticeManager),PabloFajnzylber(GlobalDirector,Infrastructure),PaoloMiguelLazaroTabuena(InvestmentAnalyst),PennyWilliams(Program

Manager),RoumeenIslam(EconomicAdvisor),SamuelFreije-Rodriguez(LeadEconomist),StephaneHallegatte(Sr.ClimateChangeAdvisor),SumatiRajput(FinancialSectorSpecialist),VictorBundiMosoti(LeadCounsel),andYoominLee(Jr.ProfessionalOfficer).LayoutdesignbyKamalMuhammed.

SupportfortheCCDRfromtheAustralianDepartmentofForeignAffairsandTradethroughtheAustralia-WorldBankIndonesiaPartnership(ABIP)isgrate-fullyacknowledged.Thissupportcontributedtoresearchintospecializedtopics(seebackgroundanalyses,below)aswellassynthesisanddissemination.Theland-relatedanalysiswassupportedbytheSustainableLandManagementMulti-DonorTrustFund(SLM-MDTF),supportedbytheGovernmentsofNorwayandAustralia.Land-relatedanalysisbuildsonamodeldevelopedaspartoftheWorldBank’sGlobalProgramonSustainability(GPS).FinancialsupportofthedonorstoGPSisgratefullyacknowledged,includingtheUK’sDepartmentforEnvironment,Food&RuralAffairs(DEFRA);Germany’sFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(BMZ);andSwitzerland’sStateSecretariatforEconomicAffairs(SECO).FinancialandtechnicalsupportbytheEnergySectorManagementAssistanceProgram(ESMAP)forthepowersectoranalysisisalsogratefullyacknowledged.

BACKGROUNDANALYSIS

ThefollowinganalysissupportedtheCCDR:

AdaptiveSocialProtection,HumanCapital,andClimateChange:IdentifyingPolicyPrioritiesforIndonesia.ByAshaWilliams(Sr.SocialProtectionSpecialist)GraciaHadiwidjaja(SocialProtectionSpecialist),RabiaAli(Sr.Economist),andImamSetiawan(Economist).

Carbonuse,wealthaccumulation,andenvironmentalqualityinthegrowthprocessinIndonesia.ByAhyaIhsan(Sr.Economist),DwiEndahAbriningrum(ResearchAnalyst),KhudadadChattha(YoungProfessional),andIndiraMaulaniHapsari(Economist).

CitiesandClimateChange:Indonesiancitiesattheforefrontofclimatesmartdevelopment.ByGayatriSingh(Sr.UrbanDevelopmentSpecialist),TiffanyMinhTran(UrbanDevelopmentConsultant),ApoorvaNarayanShenvi(ClimateChangeSpecialist),AlexandrinaPlatonova-Oquab(SeniorClimateChangeSpecialist),DaoHHarrison(Sr.HousingSpecialist),andDenadaStotteleIshmi(UrbanDevelopmentConsultant).

ClimateChangeVulnerabilityProfilesandLocalAdaptationStrategiesinIndonesia.ByJamesT.Erbaugh(ResearchAssociate,DartmouthCollege),ArunAgrawal(Professor,UniversityofMichigan),EmcetO.Tas(Sr.SocialDevelopmentSpecialist),andHannahJ.Duncan

(SocialDevelopmentConsultant).

ClimateChange:RisksandOpportunitiesfortheFinancialSectorinIndonesia.ByFrancescoStrobbe(LeadFinancialSectorEconomist),MartijnRegelink(Sr.FinancialSpecialist),OwenNie(FinancialSectorEconomist),NepomukDunz(Jr.ProfessionalOfficer),RachelMok(ClimateChangeSpecialist),NepomukDunz(Jr.ProfessionalOfficer),DorraBerraies(ClimateChangeConsultant),GauravTrivedi(FinancialSectorConsultant),andTehminaNawab(StrategyOfficer).

VIII

ClimateSmartLivestockTechnicalNote;andClimateSmartRiceTechnicalNote.ByVikasChoudhary(Sr.AgricultureSpecialist)andAlikaTuwo(AgricultureSpecialist).

DecarbonizationandthePrivateSector.ByAlexandreHugoLaure(SrPrivateSectorSpecialist),AufaDoarest(PrivateSectorSpecialist),TrangThuTran(SrEconomist),MariemMalouche(SrEconomist),andAlvaroGonzalez(LeadEconomist).

DecarbonizingUrbanMobilityinIndonesia.ByNupurGupta(Sr.UrbanTransportSpecialist),ElenaY.Chesheva(Sr.TransportSpecialist);AmiliaAldian(TransportEngineer),andTomásHerrero(TransportConsultant).

DistributionalImpactsofClimateChangeinIndonesia.ByUtzPape(Sr.Economist),EnglandRhysCan(Consultant),AnissaRahmawati(Consultant),CitraKumala(Consultant),andVirgiAgitaSari(Economist).

FiscalRisksfromclimateshocks.ByRichardPoulter(DisasterRiskManagementConsultant)andBenediktSigner(ProgramCoordinator).

GenderDimensionsinClimateChangeinIndonesia.ByDewiNovirianti(SocialDevelopmentConsultant),KateAnnaShanahan(Sr.SocialDevelopmentSpecialist),andEmcetOktayTas(Sr.SocialDevelopmentSpecialist).

IndonesiaClimateChangeInstitutionalAssessment.ByArunArya(Sr.PublicSectorManagementSpecialist),ErwinAriadharma(Sr.PublicSectorManagementSpecialist),KhudadadChattha(YoungProfessional),HariPurnomo(Sr.PublicSectorSpecialist),AhmedZakiFahmi(Economist),UnggulSuprayitno(Sr.FinancialManagementSpecialist),andAndhytaUtami(EnvironmentalEconomist).

Indonesia’sGreenInternationalCompetitivenessandGreenTrade;GreenGoodsTrade-AFirmLevelPerspective;andTheRoleofTradePoliciesinIndonesia’sGreenTransition.ByCsillaLakatos(Sr.Economist),AngellaFaithMontfaucon(Economist),VickyChemutai(YoungProfessional),andBayuAgnimaruto(TradeConsultant).

JustTransitionintheTransitionAwayfromCoal.ByMichaelStanley(LeadOilandGasSpecialist),BaladaAmor(Sr.MiningSpecialist),andJasminahWoodhouse(EnergyandExtractivesConsultant).

Low-carbonTransitioninthePowerSector(publishedinIndonesiaEconomicProspects,December2021).ByStephaneGarnier(LeadEnergySpecialist),SabineCornieti(EnergySpecialist),ClaireNicolas(Sr.EnergyEconomist),HasanDudu(Sr.Economist),andAbdoulayeSy(LeadEconomist).

ManagingIndonesia’sForestsandLandsforClimate,HealthandWealth.ByDavidBrown(ForestryConsultant),TimBrown(Sr.NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),PasqualeLucioScandizzo(UniversityofRomeTorVergata),DanieleCufari(UniversityofRomeTorVergata),DavidKaczan(Sr.Economist),AnnaLeenaEmiliaHenttinen(NaturalResourcesConsultant),AndhytaUtami(EnvironmentalEconomist),IwanGunawan(Sr.NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),andAndredeAquino(Sr.NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist).

PreparingIndonesia’sWorkforceforGreenJobs.ByJosefinaPosadas(Sr.Economist),JuliaGranata(SocialProtectionConsultant),GraceHadiwidjaja(SocialProtectionSpecialist),andHarsaSatrio(SocialProtectionConsultant).

RoleofCarbonPricinginAchievingIndonesia’sClimateCommitments.ByAndhytaUtami(EnvironmentalEconomist).

TheClimate-WaterNexusinIndonesia:WaterResourceVulnerabilities,CoastalHazards,andGreenhouseGasEmissions.ByMicahFisher(WaterConsultant),AdilahKhalis(WaterConsultant),andIrmaSetiono(Sr.WaterSupplyandSanitationSpecialist).

GreenFiscalPolicyInstruments.ByRalphVanDoorn(SrEconomist),AnthonyObeyesekere(Economist),andDwiEndahAbriningrum(Re-searchAnalyst).

AligningtheStateBudgettoClimatePrioritiesinIndonesia.ByArunArya(Sr.PublicSectorSpecialist),Dr.MuhamadChatibBasri(NDCEconomicAdviserfortheGovernmentofIndonesia),MelisaSudirman(SrCarbonFinanceConsultant),AndhytaFirsellyUtami(Environ-mentalEconomist),RalphvanDoorn(SrEconomist),CutDianAgustina(Economist),HariPurnomo(SeniorPublicSectorSpecialist),MuhammadKhudadadChattha(YoungProfessional),BambangSuharnoko(SrEconomist),andRetnoHandini(PFMConsultant).

IX

INDONESIACOUNTRYCLIMATEANDDEVELOPMENTREPORT

ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS

ADS

AcceleratedDecarbonizationScenario

AMDAL

AnalisisMengenaiDampakLingkungan(EnvironmentalImpactAssessment)

ASI

Avoid-Shift-Improve

ASP

AdaptiveSocialProtection

BAU

Business-as-usual

BMKG

BadanMeteorologi,Klimatologi,danGeofisika(Meteorology,Climatology,andGeophysicsAgency)

BNPB

BadanNasionalPenanggulanganBencana(National

DisasterManagementAuthority)

BPDLH

BadanPengelolaDanaLingkunganHidup(EnvironmentFundManagementAgency)

BPS

BadanPusatStatistik(StatisticsIndonesia)

BRGM

BadanRestorasiGambutdanMangrove(PeatandMangroveRestorationAgency)

BSP

Benefit-sharingPlan

CBAM

CarbonBorderAdjustmentMechanism

CCDR

CountryClimateandDevelopmentReport

CDP

CarbonDisclosureProject

CGE

ComputableGeneralEquilibrium

CNG

CompressedNaturalGas

CSA

ClimateSmartAgriculture

DMO

DomesticMarketObligation

DRIP

DisasterResilienceImprovementProgram

DTKS

DataTerpaduKesejahteraanSosial(IntegratedSocialWelfareDatabase)

E&S

EnvironmentalandSocial

EGA

EnvironmentalGoodsAgreement

EIP

Eco-IndustrialPark

EM-DAT

EmergencyEventsDatabase

EPC

Engineering,Procurement,andConstruction

ESG

Environmental,Social,andGovernance

ETS

EmissionsTradingScheme

EU

EuropeanUnion

EV

ElectricVehicle

FAO

FoodandAgricultureOrganization

FCPF

ForestCarbonPartnershipFacility

FDI

ForeignDirectInvestment

FOLU

ForestryandOtherLandUses

GDP

GrossDomesticProduct

GGP

GreenGrowthPlan

GHG

GreenhouseGas

HCV

HighConservationValue

IDM

IndeksDesaMembangun(DevelopingVillageIndex)

IDS

IntermediateDecarbonizationScenario

IEA

InternationalEnergyAgency

IFC

InternationalFinanceCorporation

ILO

InternationalLabourOrganization

IPP

IndependentPowerProducer

JKNJaminanKesehatanNasional(NationalHealthInsurance)

KUR

KreditUsahaRakyat(ABusinessCreditSchemeforMicro,Small,andMediumEnterprises)

LCDI

LowCarbonDevelopmentInitiative

LCR

LocalContentRequirement

LGST

LuxuryGoodsandServicesTax

LTS-LCCR

Long-TermStrategyforLowCarbonandClimateResilience

LTV

Loan-to-valuation

LUCF

LandUseChangeandForestry

MoA

MinistryofAgriculture

MoEF

MinistryofEnvironmentandForestry

MoEMR

MinistryofEnergyandMineralResources

MoF

MinistryofFinance

MoH

MinistryofHealth

MoI

MinistryofIndustry

MRV

Monitoring,Reporting,andVerification

MSoE

MinistryofState-ownedEnterprises

ND-GAIN

NotreDame-GlobalAdaptationIndex

NDC

NationallyDeterminedContribution

NPL

Non-performingLoan

NTM

Non-tariffMeasure

NUMP

NationalUrbanMobilityPolicy

OJK

OtoritasJasaKeuangan(FinancialServicesAuthority)

PFB

PoolingFundBencana(PoolingFundforDisasters)

PKH

ProgramKeluargaHarapan(FamilyHopeProgram)

PLN

PerusahaanListrikNegara(State-ownedelectricitycompany)

PPA

PowerPurchaseAgreement

PPP

PublicPrivatePartnership

PROKLIM

ProgramKampungIklim(ClimateVillageProgram)

PSO

PublicServiceObligation

PV

PresentValue

RIL

ReducedImpactLogging

RKP

RencanaKerjaPemerintah(GovernmentWorkPlan)

RPJMN

RencanaPembangunanJangkaMenengahNasional

(NationalMedium-TermDevelopmentPlan)

RPJPN

RencanaPembangunanJangkaPanjangNasional(NationalLong-TermDevelopmentPlan)

RTRW

RencanaTataRuangWilayah(DistrictSpatialPlan)

RUEN

RencanaUmumEnergiNasional(NationalEnergyPlan)

RUPTL

RencanaUsahaPenyediaanTenagaListrik(BusinessPlanforElectricityProvision)

SEZ

SpecialEconomicZone

SNI

StandarNasionalIndonesia(IndonesiaNationalStandard)

SoE

State-ownedEnterprise

SSE

SustainableStockExchange

TORA

TanahObyekReformaAgraria(NationalLandReformProgram)

UNDP

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange

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BOROBUDUR

?YOGYAKARTA

1

CLIMATE&DEVELOPMENTININDONESIA3

FIGURE1

1.1

2Thisreportusesastandardbasketofpeerswheredataallows.PeersareNigeria,China,India,Ukraine,Thailand,thePhilippines,Mexico,theArabRepub-licofEgypt,theRussianFederation,andBrazil,