胡壯麟語言學(xué)總復(fù)習(xí)課件

胡壯麟語言學(xué)總復(fù)習(xí)Chapter

1

Language

andLinguisticsl

1.1

Language

and

Humanl

1.2

Design

features

of

languagel

1.3

Functions

of

Languagel

1.4

Linguistics

and

its

branchesl

1.5

Basic

Concepts

in

linguistics1.1

Definition

of

languagel

In

the

Textbookl

Language

is

a

means

of

verbal

communication.

It

isinstrumental

in

that

communicating

by

speaking

orwriting

is

a

purposeful

act.

It

is

social

andconventional

in

that

language

is

a

social

semioticand

communication

can

only

take

place

effectively

ifall

the

users

share

a

broad

understanding

of

humaninteraction

including

such

associated

factors

asnonverbal

cures,

motivation,

and

social-cultural

rolesl

Language:

Language

is

a

system

of

arbitrary

vocalsymbols

used

for

human

communication.1.2

Design

features

oflanguagel

Design

features:

Design

features

refer

to

thedefining

properties

of

human

language

thatdistinguish

it

from

any

animal

system

ofcommunication.l

Arbitrariness/l

Productivity/l

Duality/l

Displacement/l

Cultural

transmissionArbitrarinessl

Arbitrariness

refers

to

the

property

of

languagewhich

reveals

that

there

is

no

direct

natural

linkbetween

the

linguistic

form

and

its

meaning.l

However,

language

is

not

entirely

arbitrary.

Thereare

words

which

are

created

in

the

imitation

ofsounds.l

But

the

non-arbitrary

words

are

quite

limited

innumber.l

The

arbitrary

nature

of

language

makes

it

possiblefor

language

to

have

an

unlimited

source

ofexpressions.Do

you

think

human

languageis

entirely

arbitrary?

Why?l

Language

is

arbitrary

in

nature,

it

is

not

entirelyarbitrary,

because

there

are

a

limited

number

ofwords

whose

connections

between

forms

andmeanings

can

be

logically

explained

to

a

certainextent,

for

example,

the

onomatopoeia,

words

whichare

coined

on

the

basis

of

imitation

of

sounds

bysounds

such

as

bang,

crash,etc..

Take

compoundsfor

another

example.

The

two

elements

“photo”

and“copy”

in

“photocopy”

are

non-motivated,

but

thecompound

is

not

arbitrary.Productivityl

Productivity

refers

to

the

property

of

languagewhich

enables

language

to

generate

newutterances

by

its

users.l

The

property

of

language

enables

us

toexpress

our

unlimited

and

new

ideas.l

Productivity

is

unique

to

human

language.Most

animal

communication

systems

appearto

be

highly

restricted

with

respect

to

thenumber

of

different

signals

that

their

userscan

send

and

receive.Dualityl

Duality

is

the

nature

of

language

which

shows

thatlanguage

is

a

system

and

consists

of

two

sets

ofstructure,

or

two

levels,

one

of

sounds

and

the

other

ofmeanings.l

At

the

lower

or

the

basic

level,

there

is

the

structure

ofsounds,

which

are

meaningless,

discrete,

individualsounds.

But

the

sounds

of

language

can

be

combinedaccording

to

rules

into

units

of

meaning

such

asmorphemes

and

words,

which,

at

the

higher

level,

canbe

arranged

into

sentences.l

This

duality

of

structure

or

double

articulation

oflanguage

enables

its

users

to

talk

about

anything

withintheir

knowledge.l

No

animal

communication

system

has

duality

or

evencomes

near

to

possessing

it.Displacementl

Displacement

means

that

language

can

beused

to

refer

to

things

which

are

present

ornot

present,

real

or

imagined

matters

in

thepast,

present,

or

future,

or

in

far-away

places.l

In

other

words,

language

can

be

used

to

referto

contexts

removed

from

the

immediatesituations

of

the

speakerl

Animal

calls

are

mainly

uttered

in

response

toimmediate

changes

of

situation.Cultural

transmissionl

Cultural

transmission

is

the

property

oflanguage

which

requires

us

human

to

learn

alanguage.l

Human

beings

were

born

with

the

ability

toacquire

language.l

The

details

of

any

language

are

notgenetically

transmitted

or

passed

down

byinstinct.

They

have

to

be

taught

and

learned,but

animal

call

systems

are

geneticallytrans-mitted

.Discretenessl

Discreteness

is

the

property

of

language

whichenables

the

speakers

of

a

language

to

identify

thesound

elements

in

its

words.l

Each

sound

is

discrete

and

distinct

and

thus

can

becombined

together

to

make

different

forms.l

It

is

the

structural

feature

of

language

that

words

aremade

up

of

elemental

sounds1.3

Functions

of

languagel

Malinowski:

pragmatic

function;

magicalfunction;

phatic

functionl

Jakobson:

referential,

poetic,

emotive,conative,

phatic,

metaligual

functionl

Halliday:

metafunctions:

ideational

function;interpersonal

function;

textual

function1.4

Linguistics

and

its

branchesl

Basic

branches

of

linguistics

Phonetics:speech

soundsl

Phonology:

rules

in

speech

soundsl

Morphology:

words

and

their

formationl

Syntax:

rules

of

sentencesl

Semantics:

meaningGrammarPhonologySyntaxSemanticsMorphologyOther

branches

of

linguisticsl

Pragmaticsl

Anthropological

linguisticsl

Psycholinguisticsl

Sociolinguisticsl

Neurolinguisticsl

Applied

linguisticsl

Computational

linguistics1.5

Some

concepts

in

Linguisticsl

Descriptive

vs

prescriptivel

Synchronic

vs

diachronicl

Speech

and

writingl

Langue

and

parolel

Competence

and

performance1)

Prescriptive

and

Descriptivel

Prescriptivism

prescribes

rules

of

what

iscorrect.

It

creates

rules

of

grammarl

Descriptivism

describe

the

way

peopleactually

speak

and

write

their

language,

notto

prescribe

how

they

ought

to

speak

or

write.How

is

modern

linguisticsdifferent

from

traditionalgrammar?l

Traditional

gram-mar

is

prescriptive;

it

isbased

on

"high

"(religious,

literary)

writtenlan-guage

.

It

sets

grammatical

rules

andimposes

the

rules

on

language

users.

ButModern

linguistics

is

descriptive;

It

collectsauthentic,

and

mainly

spoken

language

dataand

then

it

studies

and

describes

the

data

inan

objective

and

scientific

way.2)

Synchronic

and

Diachronicl

The

diachronic

study

refers

to

the

descriptionof

the

historical

development

of

a

languagel

The

synchronic

study

refers

to

the

descriptionof

a

particular

state

of

a

language

at

a

singlepoint

of

time.l

Synchronic

description

has

priority

overdiachronic

description.How

do

you

understand

the

distinctionbetween

a

synchronic

study

and

adiachronic

study?l

The

description

of

a

language

at

some

pointin

time

is

a

Synchronic

study;

the

de-scriptionof

a

language

as

it

changes

through

time

is

adiachronic

study.

A

synchronic

study

oflanguage

describes

a

language

as

it

is

atsome

particular

point

in

time,

while

adiachronic

study

of

language

is

the

study

ofthe

historical

development

of

language

over

aperiod

of

time.3)

Langue

and

ParoleLangueParoleThe

abstract

systemThe

particular

actualities

ofindividual

utterancesA

collective

body

ofknowledgeThe

contingent

executiveAcquired

by

all

members

ofa

community

of

speakers

The

relative

superficialbehavioral

reflexes

ofknowledgeThe

use

of

language

inutteranceWhat

are

the

major

distinctionsbetween

langue

and

parole?l

The

distinction

between

langue,

and

parole

was

made

by

thefamous

Swiss

linguist

Ferdinand

de

Saussure

early

this

century.l

Langue

refers

to

the

abstract

linguistic

system

shared

by

all

themembers

of

a

speech

community,

and

parole

refers

to

therealization

of

langue

in

actual

use.l

Langue

is

the

set

of

conventions

and

rules

which

language

usersall

have

to

follow

while

parole

is

the

concrete

use

of

theconventions

and

the

application

of

the

rules.l

Langue

is

abstract;

it

is

not

the

language

people

actually

use,

butparole

is

concrete;

it

refers

to

the

naturally

occurring

languageevents.l

Langue

is

relatively

stable,

it

does

not

change

frequently;

whileparole

varies

from

person

to

person,

and

from

situation

tosituation.4)

Competence

and

performancel

Chomskyl

Competence

refers

to

the

knowledge

thatnative

speakers

have

of

their

language

assystem

of

abstract

formal

relationsl

Performance

refers

to

what

we

do

when

wespeak

or

listen.

The

infinite

varied

individualacts

of

verbal

behavior

with

theirirregularities,

inconsistencies

and

petence

and

performance?l

American

linguist

N.

Chomsky

in

the

late

1950’s

proposed

thedistinction

between

competence

and

performance.

Chomskydefines

competence

as

the

ideal

user’s

knowledge

of

the

rules

ofhis

language.

This

internalized

set

of

rules

enables

the

languageuser

to

produce

and

understand

an

infinitely

large

number

ofsentences

and

recognize

sentences

that

are

ungrammatical

andambiguous.

According

to

Chomsky,

performance

is

the

actualrealization

of

this

knowledge

in

linguistic

communication.Although

the

speaker’s

knowledge

of

his

mother

tongue

isperfect,

his

performances

may

have

mistakes

because

of

socialand

psychological

factors

such

as

stress,

embarrassment,

etc..Chomsky

believes

that

what

linguists

should

study

is

thecompetence,

which

is

systematic,

not

the

performance,

which

istoo

haphazard.Saussure’s

distinction

between

langue

andparole

seems

similar

to

Chomsky’sdistinction

between

competence

andperformance.

What

do

you

think

are

theirmajor

differences?l

Although

Saussure’s

distinction

andChomsky’s

are

very

similar,

they

differ

atleast

in

that

Saussure

took

a

sociologicalview

of

language

and

his

notion

of

langue

is

amater

of

social

conventions,

and

Chomskylooks

at

language

from

a

psychological

pointof

vies

and

to

him,

competence

is

a

propertyof

the

mind

of

each

individual.Speech

and

writingl

Speech

and

writing

are

two

systems

oflanguage.l

Speech

has

priority

over

writing.Why

does

modern

linguistics

regard

thespoken

form

of

language

as

primary,

notthe

written?l

First,

the

spoken

form

is

prior

to

the

writtenform

and

most

writing

systems

are

derivedfrom

the

spoken

form

of

lan-guage.l

Second,

the

spoken

form

plays

a

greater

rolethan

writing

in

terms

of

the

amount

ofinformation

conveyed

and

it

serves

a

widerrange

of

purposesl

Finally,

the

spoken

form

is

the

mediumthrough

which

we

acquire

our

mother

tongue.Of

the

two

media

of

language,

why

do

youthink

speech

is

more

basic

than

writing?l

1)

In

linguistic

evolution,

speech

is

prior

towriting.l

2)

In

everyday

communication,

speech

playsa

greater

role

than

writing

in

terms

of

theamount

of

information

conveyed.l

3)

Speech

is

always

the

way

in

which

everynative

speaker

acquires

his

mother

tongue,and

writing

is

learned

and

taught

later

atschool.Chapter

Two:

Speechsounds:

phonetics

andphonology2.1

Phonetics2.2

Phonology2.1

Phoneticsl

Phonetics:

the

scientific

study

of

speech

sounds,concerning

with

defining

and

classifying

speechsounds.l

Speech

is

a

chain

with

three

stages:

production

ofthe

message,

the

transmission

of

the

message

andthe

reception

of

the

messagel

So

phonetics

are

in

three

branches:

articulatoryphonetics

(identification

and

classification

ofindividual

sounds),

acoustic

phonetics

(analysis

andmeasurement

of

sound

waves,

the

physical

featuresof

speech

sounds)

and

auditory

phonetics(perception

of

speech)Speech

sounds

and

non-speech

soundsl

We

can

make

a

variety

of

sounds.

But

wechoose

some

of

them

in

our

speech.We

make

sounds

by

means

of

the

air

out

ofor

into

our

body.

So

we

have:Pulmonic

and

non-pulmonic

speech

soundsin

our

speech.Pulmonic

egressive

airstream

vs

nonpulmonicingressive

airstreamArticulation

of

soundsl

Speech

organs:

lungs,

trachea,

larynx,pharyngeal,

oral

cavities,

and

nasal

cavities.l

Glottis:

vocal

foldsl

Voicing:

vibration

of

the

vocal

folds:

voicedand

voiceless:

some

consonants

and

allvowelsDescription

of

speech

soundsl

We

use

Phonetic

Alphabets

to

describe

speechsoundsl

International

Phonetic

alphabet

(IPA):

a

uniquewritten

representation

(a

list

of

symbols)

of

everysound

in

every

languagel

Diacritics:

any

mark

in

sound

description

additionalto

letters

or

other

basic

elements.

[¨],

[?]l

Narrow

description:

detailedl

Broad

description:

generalConsonantsl

Consonants

are

produced

by

temporarilyobstructing

or

restricting

the

airstream

as

itpasses

through

the

mouth.l

Consonants

may

be

divided

into

two

groupsin

terms

of

2

dimensions:

the

place

ofarticulation

and

the

manner

of

articulation.Vowelsl

Vowels

are

characterized

by

the

absence

ofobstruction

of

the

airstream

in

the

mouth.

They

areproduced

without

any

obstruction

or

restriction

of

theairstreaml

Three

dimensions

for

the

configuration

of

the

vowels:

openness,

backness

and

roundingl

Each

of

the

dimensions

is

continuous,

the

differencebetween

any

two

vowels

in

terms

of

the

openness,backness

and

rounding

is

always

a

matter

of

moreor

lessl

Vowels

can

be

distinguished

as

oral

vowels

andnasal

vowelsCardinal

vowelsl

8

primary

cardinal

vowelsl

another

8

cardinal

vowels,

the

secondarycardinal

vowels

:

the

front

rounded

and

theback

unroundedl

Monophthong:a

vowel

whose

quality

remainsstable

during

its

production

is

known

asmonophthong.l

Diphthong:

A

vowel

whose

quality

changedduring

its

production,

in

fact

a

combination

oftwo

monophthongs

is

known

as

diphthong.Give

the

correct

technical

termsfor

the

following

expressions1)

Both

lips

bilabial2)

Opening

between

vocal

cords

voiceless3)

Teethdental4)

Hard

roof

of

mouth

palatal5)

Ridge

behind

upper

teech

alveolar6)

Lower

lip

to

upper

teeth

labiodental7)

Back

of

tongue

to

soft

rear

roof

of

mouthvelarWrite

the

corresponding

sound

segmentsaccording

to

the

descriptions.l

a)

Voiceless

bilabial

stop:

__[p]______l

b)

Voiced

alveolar

nasal:

___[n]_______l

c)

Voiced

velar

stop:

______[?]_______l

d)

Central

lax

unrounded

vowel:

_[?]______l

e)

High

back

tense

rounded

vowel:

_[u:]____For

each

group

of

sounds

listed

below,state

the

phonetic

feature

or

features

whichthey

all

share.a.

[f]

[v]

[s]

[?]

fricativeb.

[i:]

[i]

[e]

[?]

[e:]

frontc.

[d]

[l]

[s]

[z]

[t

]

alveolard.

[b]

[d]

[g]e.

[j]

[w]plosive,

voicedvoicedWhat

are

the

criteria

that

a

linguistuses

in

classifying

vowels?l

1)

Vowels

may

be

distinguished

as

front,

central

andback

in

terms

of

the

position

of

the

tongue

in

themouth.l

2)

According

to

how

wide

our

mouth

is

opened,

weclassify

the

vowels

into

four

groups:

close

vowels,semi-close

vowels,

semi-open

vowels,

and

openvowels.l

3)

According

to

the

shape

of

the

lips,

vowels

aredivided

into

rounded

vowels

and

unrounded

vowels.l

4)

The

English

vowels

can

also

be

classified

intolong

vowels

and

short

vowels

according

to

the

lengthof

the

sound.2.2

Phonology:

Sound

patternsl

Phonology

focuses

on

the

linguistic

(phonological)rules

that

are

used

to

specify

the

manner

in

whichspeech

sounds

are

organized

and

combined

intomeaningful

units,

which

are

then

combined

to

formsyllables,

words

and

sentences.l

Sounds

are

chosen

to

be

combined

in

differentlanguages:

number

and

typeWhat

are

the

major

differencesbetween

phonology

andphonetics?l

They

differ

in

their

approach

and

focus.

Phonetics

isof

a

general

nature;

it

is

interested

in

all

the

speechsounds

used

in

all

human

languages:

how

they

areproduced,

how

they

differ

from

each

other,

whatphonetic

features

they

possess,

how

they

can

beclassified.

Phonology,

on

the

other

hand,

isinterested

in

the

system

of

sounds

of

a

particularlanguage;

it

aims

to

discover

how

speech

sounds

ina

language

form

patterns

and

how

these

sounds

areused

to

convey

meaning

in

linguistic

communication.Assimilation:

a

rule

forneighbouring

soundsl

Sounds

in

neighbourhood

may

influence

eachother.l

[l]

and

[r]

becomes

voiceless

when

they

follow[s],

[p],

[t]

and

[k],

as

in

slay,

pray,

tray,

andclay.l

Vowels

become

a

bit

longer

when

they

arebefore

voiced

consonants,

as

in

lip

and

lid,

bitand

bid.l

Vowels

before

a

nasal

consonant

becomenasalized,

e.g.

fan,

beam.Phonological

rulesl

general

form:

A→B/C___Dl

Nasalization

rule:

vowel→nasal/__nasall

Aspiration

rule:

voiceless

stop

→aspirated/wordinitially

and

initially

in

stressed

syllablesl

Sequential

rule:

a

syllable

sequence:

(CCC)

V(CCCC).

Consonant

clusters

in

syllable

initialposition

must

follow

the

following

sequence:/s/:/p/,/t/,/k/:/w/,/r/,/l/,/j/l

Assimilation

rules:

two

phonemes

become

identicalor

similar

when

adjacent

to

each

other,

for

instance,nasalization,

devoicing,

velarization,

aspiration,dentalizationl

Deletion

and

epenthesis:

the

dropping

of

certainsound

or

the

adding

of

certain

sound.Rule

orderingl

Rules

must

be

applied

according

to

certainsequence.

For

instance,

the

plural

form

of

desk,

bedand

bus

follows

three

rules

in

surface

output:a.

The

/s/

appears

after

voicelesssounds.Devoicing

ruleb.

The

/z/

appears

after

voicedsoundsBasic

formc.

The

/?z/

appears

after

sibilantsEpenthesisDevoicing:

z→s/

[-voice,

C]

____Epenthesis:

Φ→?/sibilant

___

zRule

orderingl

The

application

of

the

rules

follows

the

sequence:

epenthesis---devoicing/desk

+

z/

/bed

+

z/

/

bΛs

+

z/N/AN/A?sN/AN/AdesksbedzbΛs?zIfweapplythedevoicingrulefirst,thenthe

epenthesis

rulel

/desk

+

z/

/bed

+

z/

/

bΛs

+

z/lllsN/AdesksN/AN/Abedzs?b

Λs

?sPhoneme

and

allophonel

An

abstract

unit

of

speech

sound

is

aphoneme.

It

is

not

further

analyzable

intosmaller

units.

And

it

can

distinguish

meaningl

E.g.

seed

and

deedl

A

phoneme

has

different

realizations

inspeech.

The

different

realizations

make

theallophones

of

the

same

phoneme.l

For

instance,

/l/

are

different

in

the

words

lapand

pull.

But

the

difference

does

not

makedifferent

meaningMinimal

pair

and

minimal

setl

A

phoneme

can

be

checked

by

comparingtwo

words

which

are

similar

in

all

membersexcept

one

in

the

same

position.

Forinstance,

man

and

men,

bit

and

pit,

seed

anddeedl

We

call

these

pairs

of

words

as

minimal

pairs.l

And

those

in

group,

like

bit,

pit,

sit,

lit,

fit,

wit,etc.

as

minimal

setDistinctive

featuresl

A

phoneme

is

different

from

another

for

a

particulardifferent

feature,

we

call

this

feature,

or

many

otherfeatures

for

distinction

of

phonemes

as

distinctivefeatures.l

Voiced

and

Voiceless,

Rounded

and

Unroundedl

3

distinctive

features

relating

to

tongue

bodyfeatures:

[high],

[low],

and

[back]l

Interrupted

and

stridentl

Tense

and

laxComplementary

distributionl

When

two

or

more

sounds

never

occur

in

anidentical

phonemic

context

or

environment,they

are

said

to

be

in

complementarydistribution.l

/h/

and

/?/l

/p/

and

/pH/l

All

allophones

are

in

distributionIn

what

way

can

we

determinewhether

a

phone

is

a

phoneme

ornot?l

A

basic

way

to

determine

the

phonemes

of

alanguage

is

to

see

if

substituting

one

soundfor

another

results

in

a

change

of

meaning.

Ifit

does,

the

two

sounds

then

representdifferent

phonemes.2.4

Suprasegmental

Featuresl

The

features

of

speech

on

the

units

which

arelarger

than

individual

sounds

(segments).l

Four

aspects:

syllable,

stress,

pitch,intonation

and

toneSyllablel

A

syllable

contains

a

center,

which

is

loudand

has

no/little

obstruction.

Before

thiscenter

there

may

be

the

greater

obstruction

toairflow.l

3

parts

of

a

syllable:

onset

+

peak

+

codal

Open

syllable:

without

codal

Closed

syllable:

with

a

codaSonority

scale

of

Syllablesl

A

syllable

consists

of

a

prominent

orsonorous

peak

(usually

a

vowel),

sometimessurrounded

by

consonants

that

decrease

insonority

towards

the

edges.l

The

sonority

scale

is

a

list

of

phoneticsegments

showing

the

relative

resonance

ofphonetic

segments

in

relation

to

othersegments.l

obstruents<nasals<liquids<glides<vowelsSONORITY

SCALEl

5.l

4.l

3.l

2.VOWELS

/

a,

,

i,

u/GLIDES

/

j,

w

/LIQUIDS

/

l,

r

/NASALS

/

m,

n,

N

/l

1.

FRICATIVES,

AFFRICATES

&

STOPSSonority

scalel

This

can

help

us

understand

the

possiblesequence

in

sound

combination.

For

example,*lkapsStressl

Stress

refers

to

the

degree

of

force

used

inproducing

a

syllable.

It

is

a

relative

notion.l

Syllable

prominence:

a

syllable

is

moreprominent

than

others

in

a

word

or

phrasel

Primary

stress

and

secondary

stress.l

Stress

patterns

make

rhythmic

units

inspeech

or

poemsl

Stress

may

be

meaningful

(makes

syntacticdifference)Pitchl

Pitch

depends

on

the

vibration

of

the

vocalcords:

a

high

frequency

of

vibration

of

asound

makes

it

have

a

high

pitch.l

A

change

in

pitch

may

produce

a

vowel

moreloudly,

and

longer

than

other

vowels.

Sostressed

syllable

is

the

result

of

pitch

height.l

Pitch

patterns:

steady,

rising,

falling.

Fallingpitch

is

more

common

in

language

than

risingpitchIntonationl

Intonation:

The

pitch

differences

that

extendover

phonetic

units

larger

than

the

syllable.l

Functions

of

intonation:

grouping

of

words;emphasizing

words,

differentiating

meanings.Tonel

Tone:

differences

in

pitch

which

can

causechanges

of

word

meaningl

Tone

languages

(Chinese),

stress

languages(English),

and

pitch

accent

languages(Japanese)Illustrate

with

examples

howsuprasegmental

features

can

affectmeaning.1)

The

location

of

stress

in

English

distinguishes

meaning,

such

as

`import

andim`port.

The

similar

alternation

of

stress

also

occurs

between

a

compound

nounand

a

phrase

consisting

of

the

same

elements.

A

phonological

feature

of

theEnglish

compounds,

is

that

the

stress

of

the

word

always

falls

on

the

firstelement

and

the

second

element

receives

secondary

stress,

for

example:`blackbird

is

a

particular

kind

of

bird,

which

is

not

necessarily

black,

but

a

black`bird

is

a

bird

that

is

black.2)

The

more

important

words

such

as

nouns,

verbs

adjectives

,

adverbs,etc

arepronounced

with

greater

force

and

made

more

prominent.

But

to

give

specialemphasis

to

a

certain

notion,

a

word

in

sentence

that

is

usually

unstressed

canbe

stressed

to

achieve

different

effect.

Take

the

sentence

“He

is