碳中和之旅-解鎖安全、碳中和電力系統(tǒng)的行動計劃（英）

Thejourney

tonet-zero

Anactionplantounlockasecure,

net-zeropowersystem

PublishedinJune2022bytheLDESCouncil.Copiesofthisdocumentareavailable

uponrequestorcanbedownloadedfromourwebsite:.

Thisworkisindependent,reflectstheviewsoftheauthors,andhasnotbeencommissionedbyany

business,government,orotherinstitution.Theauthorsofthereportconfirmthat:

1.Therearenorecommendationsand/oranymeasuresand/ortrajectorieswithinthereportthatcouldbeinterpretedasstandardsorasanyotherformof(suggested)coordinationbetweentheparticipantsofthestudyreferredtowithinthereportthatwouldinfringeEUcompetitionlaw;and

2.Itisnottheirintentionthatanysuchformofcoordinationwillbeadopted.

Whilstthecontentsofthereportanditsabstractimplicationsfortheindustrygenerallycanbe

discussedoncetheyhavebeenprepared,individualstrategiesremainproprietary,confidentialandthe

responsibilityofeachparticipant.Participantsareremindedthat,aspartoftheinvariablepracticeofthe

LDESCouncilandtheEUcompetitionlawobligationstowhichmembershipactivitiesaresubject,such

strategicandconfidentialinformationmustnotbesharedorcoordinated–including

aspartofthisreport.

4.Pathwaysforward47

Marketarchetypes

Planningthejourneytonet-zeropower

5.Conclusion53

Contents

summary

Acronyms

Executive

1.Introduction

Preface

Motivationandcontext

RoleandvalueofthisreportOverviewofLDESsolutionsBarrierstoLDESadoption

8

4

5

2.Policytoolbox

Keyconsiderations

Typesofpolicyandregulatorytools

Policytoolassessmentframework

Assessmentofidentifiedtools

17

3.Policymodelling40IllustrativebusinesscaseexampleLDESsocietalvaluecreationpotentialGaspricesensitivity

Appendix55

Referenceexamplesofpolicyandregulatorysupport55

Assessmentsofindividualmechanisms58

Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Acronyms

C&F

Cap&Floor

LDES

LongDurationEnergyStorage

CCfD

CarbonContractforDifference

LMP

LocationalMarginalPricing

CfD

ContractforDifference

MW

Megawatt

CM

CapacityMarket

MWh

Megawatt-hour

COD

CommercialOperationDate

NPV

NetPresentValue

COP

ConferenceofParties

PPA

PowerPurchaseAgreement

DSO

DistributionSystemOperator

R&D

Research&Development

EAC

EnergyAttributeCertificates

RAB

RegulatedAssetBase

ESS

EnergyStorageSystems

RFP

RequestsforProposals

FiT

Feed-intariff

ROI

Returnoninvestment

FOAK

First-Of-A-Kind

T&D

Transmission&Distribution

Gt

Gigatonnes

TSO

TransmissionSystemOperator

IPCC

IntergovernmentalPanel

onClimateChange

TTF

TitleTransferFacility

IRP

IntegratedResourcePlan

WACC

WeightedAverageCostofCapital

4Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Executivesummary

LongDurationEnergyStorage(LDES)providesasourceofflexibleenergythatcountrieswillneedtoachievefully-decarbonized,secure,reliable,andaffordablepowergrids.Whiletherearelimitedpolicyframeworksinplacetodaytocatalyseindustrializationofthesector,arangeoftime-testedpoliciescanenabletherapidlarge-scalemanufacturinganddeploymentofthisnewenergyresource–byactingnow,policymakersandregulatorscanembarkonthejourneytonet-zero.

Renewableenergywillplayacriticalroleindecarbonizingthepowergridandincreasingenergysecurity,butthislarge-scaletransitionwillrequirenewsourcesofflexibilitytoensurereliableenergysupply.Globally,theenergytransitionincreasinglyhasmultiplenarratives

–climatechange,energysecurity,andenergyaffordability–withthetransitionawayfromoil,gas,andcoalseenasasignificantleverforachievingtheabove.However,replacingthesesourcesofenergy–andthedispatchabilitytheyprovide–willnotbeasstraightforwardassimplyaddingrenewablecapacitytothesystem.Theworldwillneednewsourcesofflexibilitythatarecompatiblewithalow-carbonsociety.

Thereareavarietyofsourcesoflow-carbonflexibility,includingdemandresponse,powergridexpansionandoptimization,andenergystorageofvariousdurations.Theprecisemixofresourceswillvarybyregion,butthepathtonet-zeropowerwillrequirecombiningthesesourcesofflexibility.Withgreatervariabilitybothintermsofhowpowerisconsumedbydifferentend-usesegmentsandhowpowerisgeneratedfromvariablerenewablesources,theentirepowervaluechainwillneedtoadapt.Energystoragewillbeusedtoimprovelow-carbondispatchabilityofthesystematanygiventime,whethershortburstsofenergyarerequiredtomeetfrequencychangesorsignificantquantitiesofenergyneedtobeshiftedintimeforoptimaluse.

LongDurationEnergyStoragewillplayakeyroleindeliveringnet-zerobystoringandprovidingenergyinaflexible,low-carbon,andlow-costway.Thesetechnologiescancost-optimallystorepowerforintra-andinter-daydurations,ranginganywherefromhalfadaytoaweekincapacity,therebyfillingagapbetweentoday’sbatteriesandseasonalstorage.Inthelong-term,LDEScancontributeinsuranceagainstprolongedperiodswithlowornorenewablepoweroutput,whileinthenear-termtheseassetscanpotentiallyactasinsuranceagainstelevatedpowerpricessuchasthoseelectricityconsumersareexperiencinginmanypartsoftheworldtoday.LDEScanthereforecontributedirectlytothetripleimperativeoftheenergytransition,drivinggreatersecurity,affordability,andloweremissionsofpowersupply.

YettodayLDESdoesnothavethescaleneededfornet-zeroandfacesamultitudeofbarrierstodeployment,withlittletonopolicysupportinplacetoovercomethesebarriersanddriveindustrializationofthesector.ThemajorityofLDEStechnologiesareearly-stagewithlimitedcommercialscale.Barrierstogreatercommercializationincludeuncertaintyinthepolicylandscape,impreciseregulatorydefinitionsasanassetclass,highinitialprojectcosts,elevatedcustomerandinvestorperceptionsofrisk,limitedprojectrevenuecertainty,andphysicalinfrastructureconstraints.Comprehensivepolicysupportisneededtoovercomethesebarriers.

5Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Forthefirsttime,thisreportassemblesaholisticpolicysolutionframeworkandsetofoptionstocatalysethesector.Thisreportexploresthreebroadtypesofsupport,eachwithdifferentintendedoutcomes:

?Long-termmarketsignalsinformthetrajectoryoftheenergysystemthroughplanning,targets,pricingofcarbonexternalities,etc.toofferalong-termvisionthatLDEScustomersandprojectdeveloperscanbuildtoward;

?Revenuemechanismsenhancetheviabilityofprojectsbyincreasingboththeabsoluterevenueaswellasthecertaintyofthisrevenue;and

?Directtechnologysupportandenablingmeasurescreatepathwaysforaccessanduptakeofearly-stagetechnologies

Policymakershaveawiderangeofwell-testedpoliciesavailableforconsideration.Thisreportsystematicallyevaluatesvariouspoliciesontheirabilitytoenhanceprojectviability,theirrelativeeaseofimplementationandtheirlong-termeffectivenessinunlockingvalueforthesectorandsociety:

?Intermsoflong-termmarketsignals,storagecapacitytargets,procurementtargets,andincorporationofenergystorageintogridplanningeffortswillbekey.Carbonpricingandremovaloffossilfuelsubsidieswillleveltheplayingfieldversusconventionalformsoffossil-firedflexibility.

?Revenuemechanismsaremosteffectiveinimprovingprojectfinancialviabilityforcustomersandinvestors,includingmechanismsthatbothenhancerevenuesandprovidelong-termrevenuecertaintysuchasContractsforDifference,Caps&Floors,HourlyEnergyAttributeCertificates,PowerPurchaseAgreements(PPAs,especially24/7cleanPPAs),andtheRegulatedAssetBase.

?Directtechnologysupportandenablingmeasurescanalsounlockgrowth,intheformofpublic-privatepartnerships,grantsandincentives,andtargetedtenderstoaccelerateearlyprojectsandtheirrequiredinfrastructure.Further,narrowdefinitionsofstorageinRFPs,standards,andruleswillneedtobeexpandedandbemoreflexibletoincludeLDES.

AsuccessfulapproachforbuildingalocalmarketforLDESlikelydeploysacombinationofpoliciestodriveappropriatenear-andlong-termadoption.ThelevelofsupportandapplicabletypesofpolicieswillnaturallyevolveastheLDESsectormatures,ashasbeenthecaseforpolicies

thatsupportedothercleanenergytechnologies(e.g.,Germanrooftopphotovoltaicfeed-in-tariffpriceshavedeclinedashavestrikepricesinUKoffshorewindContractforDifferenceauctions).AsthepowersystemdecarbonizesandLDESbecomemoreprominent,entirelynewmarketstructuresmightalsobedeveloped,andexistingmarketoperationframeworkspotentiallybecomelessrelevant(e.g.,marginalelectricitypricessetbyhighestcostplants).Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthesemechanismsarenosubstituteforwell-developedpricingsignalsinbalancing,intraday,andday-aheadmarketstofacilitateeffectiveparticipationfromstorageassets.Asnewtechnologiesemergeandevolve,regularreviewandrevisionofrulesandstandardsareimportanttoremoveblockersandmaintainalevel-playingfield.Revenuemechanismsmaybephasedoutorscaledownovertime,astechnologycostsdeclineandriskappetiteimproves.

Thesocietalsavingsfromlarge-scaleLDESdeploymentcanoutweighthecostsofimplementingpolicies.LDESimprovesoverallutilizationofexistingrenewablegenerationresources(curtailedenergycanbestoredandthenexportedlater)aswellasofthepowergridsthatcarryenergytoloadcentres.Thisincreaseinutilizationreducestheinvestmentrequiredinstandbypeakingpowercapacityoradditionalpowergridexpansion.Ifsupportpoliciesaredesignedappropriately,thesesocietalsavingscanoutweightheprogramcosts,evenbeforeaccountingforthewidersocio-economicbenefitsoflowercarbonemissionsorjobcreationandeconomicgrowthresultingfromthecommercializationofthesesolutions.

Thejourneytonet-zero–andtheroleofLDESinthistransition–havemanydifferenttrajectoriesthatdependonlocalpowermarketstructure,resourcemix,andenergytransitionambitions.Theurgencyofpolicyactionwilldependonfactorssuchasexistingabundanceofflexibilityresources(e.g.,hydropowerresources,significantinterconnectioncapacitywithneighbouringpowergrids,etc.),levelofrenewablepenetration,andenergytransitionambition.EachlocalLDESjourneylikelybeginswiththeformationofabaselineunderstandingofflexibilityneedsovertimetoreliablymeetsystemgoals,followedbystepstounderstandthelocallandscapeofavailabletechnologyandrequirementsofenergysystemstakeholders.Onceimplemented,policiesandregulationsmustberegularlyreviewedtoensuretheyremaineffectiveasthemarketdevelopsandthetechnologiesmature.

6Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

g

g

c

e

7Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

f

c

c

e

e

Policiestakesignificanttimetoimplement–andcapital-intensiveindustriescanbeslowtoscale–sothetimetoactisnow.Policymakersandregulatorscanmakeadifference:byactingtodaytheycanhelpbringaboutafallintechnologycostsandcontributetoacceleratingtheenergytransitiontomorrow.

Summaryofpolicyassessmentacrossqualitativecriteria

Long-termmarketsignals

a

c

d

VerystrongFairlystrongMixedWeak

Gridplanning

Storagecapacitytargets

Renewableenergytargets

a

g

f

fb

b

ec

Revenuemechanisms

g

e

a

c

Carbonpricing

g

a

a

f

b

b

f

c

c

e

e

d

d

d

d

Phase-outoffossilfuelsubsidies

a

b

f

c

e

d

c

e

Procurementtargets

g

a

b

f

d

CapandFloorCapacitymarket

Contractfordifference

Hourlyenergyattributecertificates

gaga

ga

ga

b

f

b

f

b

f

b

f

e

e

c

c

e

c

e

c

dd

d

d

Long-termbalancingservices

Nodalorlocationalmarginalpricing

Regulatedassetbase

24/7CleanPPA

gaga

ga

ga

b

f

b

f

b

f

b

f

e

c

e

c

e

c

e

c

dd

Directtechnologysupport&enablingmeasures

d

d

Grantsandincentives

g

a

b

f

c

e

d

Targetedtenders

g

a

b

f

e

d

Investmentde-riskmechanisms

g

a

b

f

d

Technologystandards

g

a

b

f

d

Marketrules

g

a

b

f

c

e

d

Sandboxes

g

a

b

f

c

d

1.

Introduction

Preface

Motivationandcontext

Roleandvalueofthisreport

OverviewofLDESsolutions

BarrierstoLDESadoption

Preface

TheLDESCouncilisaglobal,executive-ledorganizationthatstrivestoacceleratedecarbonizationoftheenergysystematlowestcosttosocietybydrivinginnovationanddeploymentoflongdurationenergystorage(LDES).LaunchedattheConferenceofParties(COP)26,theLDESCouncil(snapshotofcurrentmembersinExhibit1)providesfact-basedguidancetogovernmentsandindustry,drawingfromtheexperienceofitsmembers,whichincludeleadingtechnologyproviders,industryandservicescustomers,capitalproviders,equipmentmanufacturers,andlow-carbonenergysystemintegratorsanddevelopers.

LDESisdefinedasanytechnologythatcanbedeployedcompetitivelytostoreenergyforprolongedperiodsandscaledupeconomicallytosustainenergyprovision1,formultiplehours,days,orevenweeks,andthathasthepotentialtocontributesignificantlytothedecarbonizationoftheeconomy.

Inthisreport,theCouncilfocusesonpotentialregulatoryandpolicyoptionstoovercomebarrierstowidespreadLDESdeployment.

Suchmeasureswillbeacriticalcomponentofan

actionplantodelivertheenergytransitionandto

ensureasustainableandsecureenergyfutureforall.

ThisreportisanLDESCouncilpublication.

Representativesfromindividualmembercompanies

havecontributedtotheideationanddraftingofthe

messagesandanalysisinthisreport,butthese

entitiesdonotnecessarilyendorseeachindividual

recommendation.Itsmembershavebeeninvolvedin

thedraftingofthereportbuttheydonotnecessarily

endorseeachrecommendationofthereport.

ThisreportisoneofmanyactivitiestheLDES

Councilmembershipispursuing:

?InMay,theCouncilpublishedadetailedanalysison24/7cleanPowerPurchaseAgreements,oneofthepoliciesthatisassessedinthisreport.Thispublicationisalsoavailableat.

?TheCouncilalsohasactiveworkinggroupsfocusedondecarbonizationofheatanddevelopmentofplatformsforacceleratingthesector.AsummaryoftheCouncil’sfullresearchagenda,asprioritizedandshapedbymembership,canbefoundonline.

1ThefocusofthisreportisonLDESsolutionsthatdeliverpower,butamajorfocusoftheCouncil2022isonexpandingtheaperturetoalsoconsiderdeliveryofheat(e.g.,forindustrialapplications).

Exhibit1:LDESCouncilmembership

Todate,50leadingcompanieshavejoinedtheLDESCounciltoacceleratedecarbonization

Technologyproviders

Industryand

servicescustomers

Capital

providers

Equipmentmanufacturers

Low-carbonenergysystemintegrators&developers

Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Anchors

9

Motivationandcontext

Newsourcesoflow-carbonflexibilitywillneedtobedeployedinordertode-risktheenergytransition.LDESwillplayakeyrole.

Thepowersectorisakeyenableroflarge-scalesocietaldecarbonizationgiventheabilitytogenerateelectricitycompetitivelyfromrenewablesourcesandtoelectrifyend-useconsumptionofenergy.Thepowersectorcurrentlyaccountsforroughly30%ofglobalcarbondioxideequivalentemissions.Giventhesector’sincreasingroleinfinalenergyconsumptionduetomobilityandheatingelectrification,itisamongstthesectorsthatwillneedtodecarbonizedeepestandfastesttoenablelowercarbonemissionsinothersectors.Thistransitionhassignificantimplicationsforthepowersectoranditsresourcemixandbyextensionthereliableoperationofthewidersystemthatpowersmodernsociety.

Theimperativeforpowersystemdecarbonizationisincreasinglyaboutenhancingandacceleratingenergysecurity.Asystemthatreliesongreaterutilizationoflocalandregionalrenewableresourcesreducesitsdependenceonfossilfuels,purchaseofwhichoftencarriesgeopoliticalimplications.Europehasrecentlyreassesseditsenergystrategyandincreasedtheurgencyofreducingdependenceonimportedfossilfuelsandoffindingnew,environmentally-andpolitically-sustainableandreliablesourcesofthisenergysupply.2

Flexibility–theabilityofasystemtorespondtochangingconditions–andreliabilityinmodernenergysystemshavetypicallycomefromdispatchablefossil-firedresources.Byburningmoreorlessfuel,fossil-firedandparticularlygasplantscanprovidedispatchableenergyoutputwithrelativeeasetoaccommodatechangesindemandorgeneratingpatterns.3Thesedispatchableresourceshavealsoprovidedconsiderablegridservices,suchasstabilityintheformofvoltagesupport,inertia,andshortcircuitlevelcurrentthatenhancetheabilityofapowersystemtohandledisturbancesandmaintainnormal(andsafe)electricaloperatingparameters.4Goingforward,theenergysystemwillneednewsourcesofflexibility–whichLDEScanprovide–toaddressthedecarbonizationandenergysecurityimperativealongsidethecontinuedphasingoutoffossilfuelresources.

Theseflexibilityneedsareexpectedtobecomeincreasinglypronouncedasrenewableenergystartstodominatesystemcapacityanddeterminesystemoperation.SolutionslikeLDESwillplayakeyroleinbridgingtheemergentandgrowinggapsbetweenperiodsofrenewableenergysurplusanddeficittoensurecontinuedreliablesystemoperation.

2TheEuropeanCommissionestimatesthatin2021theEUimportedmorethan40%ofitstotalgasconsumption,27%ofoilimports,and46%ofcoalimportsfromRussia.Thesefiguresareaverages,withsomeEUcountriesmoreexposedthanothers.

3Withassociatedcarbonemissions–atypicalcombinedcyclegasturbineemits~500kg/MWhofcarbondioxidewhilepeakingplantswithhigherheatratesarelessefficientandthereforemorecarbon-intensive.

4Atypicalgasplantmayprovidee.g.,~5GVAsofinertiaor~3%oftheUK’stotalsystem-wideinertialrequirement(~140GVAs).

10Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Theconceptoflowornet-zeroflexibilityandreliabilityisnotnew.Varioustechnologicaloptionsexisttoimproveflexibilityofthepowersystembeyondtheuseofdispatchablegenerators.Augmentationofpowergridstoimprovemeshing(i.e.,tocreatemultiplepathsforpowerflow)andinterconnectivitybetweendifferentregionsprovidessignificantsystemflexibilitybyconnectingdecentralizedsupplyanddemand.Demandsidemanagementorresponseisalsoanestablishedtechniquethatcancontrolwhenandhowmuchelectricityisconsumedbyindustrialorcommercialoperations,asareformsofself-generationandconsumptionviaonsitephotovoltaicanddistributedstorage,especiallywhenaggregatedanddispatchedtooptimizeforlocaldistributionsystems.Andlastly,stationaryenergystoragesystems(ESS)offerflexibility,especiallyfortemporalshiftingofelectricitythatwillberequiredasthepenetrationofrenewablesincreases.

Therolesofthesesourcesofflexibility

willbecomemorepronouncedwiththeacceleratingenergytransition.PowermodelinghasindicatedagrowingneedforESScapacity,bothintermsofpowerandduration,withdurationbeingaparticularlyimportantdimensionastheshareofrenewablepenetrationingeneratingcapacityincreases.TheU.S.Departmentof

EnergyARPA-EresearchhasshownthattheneedforsuchLDESincreasessignificantlywhenrenewablesreach60-70%ofpowercapacity.5IntheLDESCouncil’sinaugural2021marketanalysis6,theglobalneedforLDESby2040wasestimatedat1.5-2.5TWofpowercapacityand85-140TWhofenergycapacity.

However,buildingtherequiredmanufacturingcapacityandestablishingsupplychainswillnothappenovernight.Creating“giga-scale”productionfacilitiestakesyearsfortechnologycompanies.Prospectinganddevelopingnewmineralresourcesandsupplychainstofulloutputtakesyears,asdoescreating“giga-scale”manufacturingfacilities.Permitting,building,andinterconnectinghighvoltagepowerassetsmayalsotakeontheorderofseveralyears.Indeed,toachievenet-zeropowerbytheearly2030s,theindustryneedstodrivetowardcommercialscaletoday.NotdeployingLDESmeansthatflexibilityisprovidedbyhigh-carbonandhigh-costgasplantsorthatthereliabilityofthegridweakensasthesectordecarbonizes.Policiesandregulationshaveakeyroleinenhancingtherightsignalstostartcreatingthejourney,establishinglong-termtrajectoriesandregulatorycertainty,enhanceprojectviabilityandcreatepathwaysformarketaccessandentry.

ARPA-EresearchhasshownthattheneedforsuchLongDurationEnergyStorage(LDES)increasessignificantlywhenrenewablesreach60-70%ofpowercapacity.

5Thisfractionmaybelowerorhigherdependingonseveralfactorssuchasthepowergenerationmix,thegrowthinpowerdemand,thedegreeofnetworkmeshingandinterconnection,etc.

6Net-zeropower:Longdurationenergystorageforarenewablegridavailableonlineat/insights

11Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

Roleandvalueofthisreport

Thisreportisdirectedatpolicyandregulatorystakeholdersnavigatingtheenergytransitionanditsimplications.ItpresentsanoverviewofthepotentialtoolsavailabletothemtosupportcommercializationoftheLDESsector.

Morespecificallythisreport:

?RecapstheroleofLDESasaflexibilitysolutionandenablerofenergysystemdecarbonization,reliabilityandsecurity,byde-riskingtheinherentvariabilityofrenewablepowersources

?HighlightskeybarrierstowidespreadLDESadoptionthatareparticularlyrelevantduringtheindustry’snascency,andthatpolicycanbedesignedtomitigateorovercome

?OffersasetofkeyconsiderationsindevelopingpolicyandregulatoryframeworkstoincreasethelikelihoodofadvancingthecommercialmaturityandscaleoftheLDESindustryandachievingenergytransitiongoalsatreasonablecost

?Presentsanddefinesdifferenttypesofactions(andexamplemechanismswithineachtype)withtheintentofprovidingacomprehensivebutnotexhaustivereviewofthepolicylandscape,whilealsoofferingexamplesofhowthesepolicytoolsarebeingdeployedinselectedgeographiestogrowmarketsfornewcleanenergytechnologies

?UsesillustrativebusinesscaseexamplestoshowcasethedirectionalimpactofapplyingdifferentpolicytoolsthatdirectlyimpactLDESprojecteconomics

?SuggestsasetofkeyregulatoryandelectricitymarketarchetypesthatcanbeusedbypolicymakerstoidentifywhichpolicytoolsforadvancingthemarketforLDEStechnologiesmaybemostrelevantfor

theirjurisdiction

?ShareskeystepspolicymakerscouldtaketoadvancethescaleoftheLDESindustrythatarebroadlyapplicableacrossregionsandjurisdictions

Notethatmanyofthepolicytooloptionspresentedarepredominantlyapplicabletothepowersectorandthedispatchofelectricity.AstheLDESCouncilexpandsitsfocusin2022,toincludeflexibilitysolutionsforandapplicationsinlow-carbonheat,thescopeofregulatoryconsiderationsmayexpandtoalsoincludedeliveryofheatasanenergycarrier.

?Proposesanassessmentframeworkto

evaluatepotentialoptionsthatcanaddress

thekeybarrierstocreatingviablemarketsfor

LDESresources

12Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

13Thejourneytonet-zero|Anactionplantounlockasecure,net-zeropowersystem

OverviewofLDESsolution