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Chapter3:ThePolicymakingProcess:

Decision-MakingActivities第3章

政策制定過(guò)程:決策活動(dòng)

Contents1.ThePolicyProcess:HowPoliciesAreMade2.ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting3.AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp4.AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown5.”Nondecisions”:DecidingWhatWillNotBeDecided6.AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia7.FormulatingPolicy8.InterestGroupsandPolicymaking9.PolicyLegitimation:TheProximatePolicymakers10.PolicyImplementation:TheBureaucracy11.PolicyEvaluation:ImpressionisticversusSystematic1.政策過(guò)程:如何制定政策2.問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定3.自下而上的議程設(shè)定4.自上而下的議程設(shè)定5.“不決策”:決定哪些問(wèn)題不予決策6.議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒7.政策形成8.利益集團(tuán)與政策制定9.政策合法化:最直接的決策者10.政策執(zhí)行:官僚制11.政策評(píng)估:印象派與系統(tǒng)化

Althoughitmaybehelpfultothinkaboutpolicymakingasaseriesofprocesses,intherealworldtheseactivitiesseldomoccursimultaneously,eachonecollapsingintotheothers.雖然把政策制定視作一系列的過(guò)程或許有作用,但在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中,這些活動(dòng)很少是整齊劃一、井然有序、一步接一步的。相反,這些行為過(guò)程經(jīng)常是同時(shí)發(fā)生的,甚至是相互交織的。3.1ThePolicyProcess:HowPoliciesAreMadeTable3-1PolicymakingasaProcess

Policymakingcanbeseenasaprocess——howpoliciesaremade——inastep-by-stepsequences;butinrealitytheseprocessesoverlapandintertwine.ProcessActivityParticipantsProblemIdentificationPublicizingsocietalproblemsExpressingdemandsforgovernmentactionMassmediaInterestgroupsCitizeninitiativesPublicopinionAgendaSettingDecidingwhatissueswillbedecided,whatproblemswillbeaddressedbygovernmentElites,includingpresident,CongressPolicyFormulationDevelopingpolicyproposalstoresolveissuesandameliorateproblemsThinktanksPresidentandexecutiveofficeCongressionalcommitteesInterestgroupsTable3-1PolicymakingasaProcess

Policymakingcanbeseenasaprocess——howpoliciesaremade——inastep-by-stepsequences;butinrealitytheseprocessesoverlapandintertwine.ProcessActivityParticipantsPolicyLegitimationSelectingaproposalDevelopingpoliticalsupportforitEnactingitintolawDecidingonitsconstitutionalityInterestgroupsPresidentCongressCourtsPolicyImplementationOrganizingdepartmentsandagenciesProvidingpaymentsorservicesLevyingtaxesPresidentandWhiteHousestaffExecutivedepartmentsandagenciesPolicyEvaluationReportingoutputsofgovernmentprogramsEvaluatingimpactsofpoliciesontargetandnontargetgroupsProposingchangesand“reforms”ExecutivedepartmentsandagenciesCongressionaloversightcommitteesMassmediaThinktanks表3-1政策制定的一般過(guò)程

政策制定可以看做一個(gè)過(guò)程——政策是如何按一定步驟制定的;但是,在現(xiàn)實(shí)中這些過(guò)程是相互交織在一起的。過(guò)程行為參與者問(wèn)題確認(rèn)公布社會(huì)問(wèn)題,表達(dá)對(duì)政府行為的要求大眾媒體、利益集團(tuán)、公民組織、公共輿論議程設(shè)定決定對(duì)哪些問(wèn)題作出決策,政府要解決哪些問(wèn)題精英、包括總統(tǒng)和國(guó)會(huì)選舉的候選人、媒體政策形成提出解決問(wèn)題和改善困境的政策建議智囊團(tuán)、總統(tǒng)和行政官員、國(guó)會(huì)議員、利益集團(tuán)政策合法化對(duì)政策方案作出抉擇,尋求政治支持,使之成為法律,決定其合憲性利益集團(tuán)、總統(tǒng)、國(guó)會(huì)、法院政策執(zhí)行組織有關(guān)的部門和機(jī)構(gòu),提供相關(guān)費(fèi)用與服務(wù),征稅總統(tǒng)和白宮成員、行政部門和機(jī)構(gòu)政策評(píng)估報(bào)告政府項(xiàng)目的結(jié)果,評(píng)估政策對(duì)目標(biāo)群體和非目標(biāo)群體的影響,建議政策變更或“改革”行政部門和機(jī)構(gòu)、國(guó)會(huì)監(jiān)督委員會(huì)、媒體、智囊團(tuán)

Whodecideswhatwillbedecided?InademocracyitissometimesarguedthatproblemidentificationoccurswheneverindividualsorgroupsmakedemandsUpongovernment.PoliticalscientistJamesE.Andersonwrite:“Forourpurposes,apolicyproblemcanbedefinedasaconditionorsituationthatproducesneedsordissatisfactiononthepartofpeopleforwhichrelieforredress[fromgovernment]issought.”JamesE.Anderson,PublicPolicymaking:AnIntroduction,6thed.(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2006),p.80.3.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

由誰(shuí)來(lái)決定對(duì)什么問(wèn)題進(jìn)行決策?有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為,在民主體制中,不論何時(shí)只要個(gè)人或群體向政府提出要求,政策問(wèn)題的確認(rèn)就開始了。政治學(xué)家詹姆斯·E·安德森曾說(shuō)過(guò):“對(duì)于我們的目的而言,政策問(wèn)題可以被界定為,使某些人產(chǎn)生需要或不滿的狀態(tài)或情形,并要求政府給予或補(bǔ)償?!闭材匪埂·安德森.公共政策制定導(dǎo)論(第6版),2006,p.803.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

Butproblemidentificationisnotthatsimple.Thereareamultitudeofneedsanddissatisfactionsinsocietythatareneveridentifiedaspolicyproblems,thatnevergetonthe“agenda”ofpolicymakers.Governmentdoesnothingandconditionsremainthesame.Demandsthatthegovernment“dosomething”arevirtuallyinsatiable,yetspaceontheagendaofgovernmentpolicymakingisscarce.Thisraisesthecrucialquestionofhowandwhysomeconditionsinsocietyareidentifiedaspolicyissuesandplacedonthegovernmentalagenda,whileothersarenot.Foramoresophisticatedtreatmentofproblemidentificationandagendasetting,seeJohnKingdon,Agendas,Alternatives,andPublicPolicies(Boston:Little,Brown,1984)3.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

但是,對(duì)政策問(wèn)題的確認(rèn)并非如此簡(jiǎn)單。在社會(huì)生活中有大量的需求和不滿意的地方,從來(lái)沒(méi)有被確認(rèn)為政策問(wèn)題,也從未被列入決策者的“議程”。結(jié)果就是政府沒(méi)有做什么事情,那種情形也依舊沒(méi)有改變。對(duì)政府提出“做什么”的要求可以說(shuō)是貪得無(wú)厭的,而政府制定政策的日程表上的空間卻是稀缺資源。這就提出了一個(gè)關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題:為什么社會(huì)中的一些情形被界定為政策問(wèn)題并提上政府的議事日程,又是怎樣確認(rèn)的,而為什么另一些情形卻不能被認(rèn)定為政策問(wèn)題并提上政策議程。問(wèn)題界定和議程設(shè)定是一個(gè)更加復(fù)雜的處理過(guò)程見,約翰·金登的《議程設(shè)定、備選方案與公共政策》,19843.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

But,inreality,policyissuesdonotjust“happen.”Creatinganissue,dramatizingIt,callingattentiontoit,andpressuringgovernmenttodosomethingaboutitareimportantpoliticaltactics.Thesetacticsareemployedbyinfluentialindividuals,organizedinterestgroups,policy-planningorganizations,politicalcandidatesandoffice-holders,andperhapsmostimportant,themassmedia.Thesearethetacticsof“agendasetting.”3.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

但實(shí)際上,政策問(wèn)題并不只是“發(fā)生”的。提出議題,將其夸大以引起關(guān)注,從而向政府施壓,要求其采取行動(dòng),這些都是重要的政治策略。這些政治策略被以下的政治參與者運(yùn)用:有影響力的個(gè)人、有組織的利益集團(tuán)、設(shè)計(jì)政策的組織、政治候選人、官居一定職位的人,還有最重要的是大眾媒體。這些都是“議程設(shè)定”中所涉及的政治策略。3.2ProblemIdentificationandAgendaSetting問(wèn)題確認(rèn)與議程設(shè)定

TheprevailingmodelofpolicymakinginAmericanpoliticalscienceisapopularlydriven,“bottom-up”portraitofdecisionmaking.This“democratic-pluralist”modelassumesthatinanopensocietyanyproblemcanbeidentifiedbyindividualsorgroups,bycandidatesseekingelection,bypoliticalleadersseekingtoenhancetheirreputationandprospectsforreelection,bypoliticalpartiesseekingtodefinetheirprinciplesand/orcreatefavorablepopularimagesofthemselves,bythemassmediaseekingto“create”news,andevenbyprotestgroupsdeliberatelyseekingtocallattentiontotheirproblems.Variouscrisesanddisasters;terroristattacks…3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定Whetherpublicopinionshouldshoulddeterminepublicpolicymayneverberesolved.democraticrepresentativesshouldservetheinterestofthepeople,butnotnecessarilyconformtotheirwillwhendecidingquestionsofpublicpolicy.3.3.1PublicOpinionandAgendaSettingEdmundBurke

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定公共輿論是否應(yīng)該決定公共政策的問(wèn)題也許永遠(yuǎn)得不到解決。哲學(xué)層面&經(jīng)驗(yàn)層面民主選舉的代表在決定公共政策問(wèn)題的時(shí)候,應(yīng)該服務(wù)于人民的利益,但不必完全屈從于大眾的意志。3.3.1公共輿論與議程設(shè)定埃德蒙·伯克

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定WecanneverbesurewhethermassopinionshapedpublicpolicyorpublicpolicyshapedmassopinionGovernment,aswehaveseen,attemptstomoldpublicopiniontowardsupportoftheprogramsandpoliciesitespouses.Giventhatendeavor,perfectcongruencebetweenpublicpolicyandpublicopinioncouldbegovernmentofpublicopinionratherthangovernmentbypublicopinion3.3.2Opinion-PolicyLinkageV.O.Key,Jr.publicopinionandAmericanDemocracy

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定我們根本不能確定是大眾輿論促成了公共政策還是公共政策塑造了大眾輿論政府,正如我們所看到的那樣,試圖塑造大眾輿論,來(lái)爭(zhēng)取民眾對(duì)其倡導(dǎo)的政策和項(xiàng)目的支持。在這種努力的影響下,公共政策與公共輿論完全相等的結(jié)果,只能說(shuō)明,公共輿論為政府所控制,而不可能是公共輿論影響政府。3.3.2輿論—政策的關(guān)系V.O.凱伊:《公共輿論與美國(guó)民主》

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定Publicpolicyshapespublicopinionmoreoftenthanopinionshapespolicy.First,fewpeoplehaveopinionsonthegreatbulkofpolicyQuestionsconfrontingthenation’sdecisionmakers.Second,publicopinionisveryunstable.Third,leadersdonothaveaclearperceptionofmassopinion.3.3.3PolicyEffectsThreeReasons:

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定通常是公共政策塑造了大眾輿論,而不是大眾輿論造就了公共政策。第一,很少有人對(duì)擺在國(guó)家決策者面前的這些政策問(wèn)題的重要性提出意見或看法。第二,公共輿論是非常不穩(wěn)定的。第三,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者缺乏對(duì)公共輿論清晰的洞察與理解。3.3.3政策影響三個(gè)理由:

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定Wemustnotassumethattheopinionsexpressedinthenewsmediaarepublicopinion.Newspapersbelievetheyarepublic,oftenconfusingtheirownopinionswithpublicopinion.Theyeventellthemasspublicwhatitsopinionis,thus,actuallyhelpingtomoldittoconformtotheirownbeliefs.Decisionmakers,then,mayactinresponsetonewsstoriesortheopinionsofinfluentialnewspersonsinthebeliefthattheyarerespondingtopublicopinion.3.3.4MediaEffectsAsourceofconfusion

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定我們不能憑空假定在新聞媒體上發(fā)表出來(lái)的觀點(diǎn)就是大眾輿論的觀點(diǎn)新聞人士認(rèn)為他們自己就是公眾,經(jīng)常把他們自己的觀點(diǎn)與公眾的觀點(diǎn)相混淆。他們甚至還把自己的觀點(diǎn)告知公眾,以利于塑造符合他們自己信念的觀點(diǎn)。決策者也可能做出行動(dòng)以回應(yīng)新聞事件或有影響力的新聞人士的意見,并誤以為他們是在對(duì)公共輿論做出回應(yīng)。(意見領(lǐng)袖;默多克的新聞帝國(guó);傳播力、思想力、影響力)3.3.4媒體影響混淆的根源

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定Publicopinionpollsfrequentlycreateopinionsbyaskingquestionsthatrespondentsneverthoughtaboutuntiltheywereasked.Massopiniononaparticularissueisoftenveryweaklyheld.Opinionsalsovaryaccordingtothewordingofquestions.3.3.5OpinionPollsWhyTheyCan?

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定通過(guò)一些回答者在接受測(cè)驗(yàn)之前從未考慮過(guò)的問(wèn)題,民意測(cè)驗(yàn)可以制造出一些觀點(diǎn)。(蓋洛普民意測(cè)驗(yàn))在某一特定問(wèn)題上的大眾輿論通常是相當(dāng)模糊的。公共輿論還隨著測(cè)驗(yàn)問(wèn)題的表達(dá)與措辭的變化而變化。3.3.5民意測(cè)驗(yàn)為什么能?

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定Decisionmakerscaneasilymisinterpretpublicopinionbecausethecommunicationstheyreceivehaveanelitebias.Mostofthecommunicationsreceivedbydecisionmakersareintraelitefromnewspersons,organizedgroupleaders,influentialconstituents,wealthypoliticalcontributors,andpersonalfriends——peoplewho,forthemostpart,sharethesameviews.Personswhoinitiatecommunicationwithdecisionmakers,bywritingorcallingorvisitingtheirrepresentatives,aredecidedlymoreeducatedandaffluentthantheaveragecitizen.3.3.6CommunicatingwithPolicymakersWhy?

3.3AgendaSettingfromtheBottomUp

自下而上的議程設(shè)定決策者很容易誤解大眾輿論觀點(diǎn),因?yàn)樗麄兊玫降臏贤ㄐ畔⒋嬖谝环N精英的偏見。決策者獲得的信息絕大多數(shù)來(lái)自精英內(nèi)部——新聞人物、集團(tuán)組織的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、有影響的選民、富有的政治捐助者,或私人朋友。在相當(dāng)大的程度上,這些人都與決策者擁有共同的觀點(diǎn)。(保護(hù)財(cái)產(chǎn))那些通過(guò)寫信、打電話或訪問(wèn)的方式與決策者取得聯(lián)系的人,肯定要比普通民眾受過(guò)更好的教育,也更加富有。3.3.6與決策者的交流與溝通為什么?

WhenV.O.Keywrestledwiththesameproblemconfrontingus——namely,thedeterminationoftheimpactofpopularpreferencesonpublicpolicy——heconcludedthat“themissingpieceofthepuzzle”was“thatthinstratumofpersonsreferredtovariouslyasthepoliticalelite,thepoliticalactivists,theleadershipechelons,ortheinfluentials.”3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

當(dāng)政治學(xué)家小V.O.凱伊像我們一樣面對(duì)這個(gè)富有挑戰(zhàn)性的問(wèn)題時(shí),即大眾偏好是否對(duì)公共政策具有決定性影響的時(shí)候,他得出結(jié)論說(shuō),“這個(gè)難題容易被忽視的方面”是“由部分人組成的社會(huì)階層,主要包括政治精英、政治活動(dòng)家、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)集團(tuán)或有影響力的人士”。3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定Table3-2PopularAttitudesTowardGovernmentPolicymaking

TheAmericanpublicishighlyskepticalofpoliticiansandpeopleingovernment,

believingthattheyshouldpaymoreattentiontothepublic’sviews.3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知Overtheyears,howmuchattentiondoyoufeelthegovernmentpaystowhatthepeoplethinkwhenitdecideswhattodo:agooddeal,some,ornotmuch?Agooddeal7%Some36Notmuch54Don’tknow3Ingeneral,doyouthinkpeopleingovernmentunderstandwhatpeoplelikeyouthinkverywell,somewhatwell,notthatwell,ornotwellatall?(Askedofhalfthesample)Verywell2%Somewhatwell27Notthatwell33Notwellatall35Don’tknow3Table3-2PopularAttitudesTowardGovernmentPolicymaking

TheAmericanpublicishighlyskepticalofpoliticiansandpeopleingovernment,

believingthattheyshouldpaymoreattentiontothepublic’sviews.3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知Wouldyousaythegovernmentisprettymuchrunbyafewbiginterestslookingoutforthemselves,orthatitisrunforthebenefitofallthepeople?Afewbiginterests75%Benefitofallthepeople19Don’tknow7Iftheleadersofthenationfollowedtheviewsofthepublicmoreclosely,doyouthinkthenationwouldbebetteroff,orworseoffthanitistoday?(Askedofhalfthesample)Better81%Worse10Don’tknow10I’mgoingtoreadyoutwostatements.Pleasetellmewhichstatementyouagreewithmost.(A)WhenmembersofCongressarethinkingabouthowtovoteonanissue,theyshouldreaduponpollsontheissues,becausethiscanhelpthemgetasenseofthepublic’sviewsontheissue.Table3-2PopularAttitudesTowardGovernmentPolicymaking

TheAmericanpublicishighlyskepticalofpoliticiansandpeopleingovernment,

believingthattheyshouldpaymoreattentiontothepublic’sviews.3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知(B)WhenmembersofCongressarethinkingabouthowtovoteonanissue,theyshouldnotreaduponpollsontheissues,becausethiswilldistractthemfromthinkingaboutwhattheythinkisright.Readpollstosensepublic’sviews67%Don’treadpolls,dowhatyouthinkright26Don’tknow7SOURCE:CenteronPolicyAlternatives,asreportedinThePollingReport,15February1999.表3-2大眾對(duì)政府制定政策的看法

美國(guó)公眾對(duì)政治家和政府部門的工作人員深表懷疑,認(rèn)為他們應(yīng)該更加關(guān)心公眾的觀點(diǎn)(%)李光耀3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知這些年來(lái),你認(rèn)為政府在作決策時(shí),在多大程度上關(guān)注過(guò)民眾的所思所想:非常關(guān)注,一定程度的關(guān)注,還是不關(guān)注?

非常關(guān)注7

有些關(guān)注36

基本不關(guān)注54

不知道3總體來(lái)說(shuō),你認(rèn)為政府工作人員能夠很好地理解民眾所思考的事情嗎?(測(cè)試了抽樣人數(shù)中一半的人)

理解得很好2

理解得有些好27

理解得不那么好33

理解的根本不好35

不知道3表3-2大眾對(duì)政府制定政策的看法

美國(guó)公眾對(duì)政治家和政府部門的工作人員深表懷疑,認(rèn)為他們應(yīng)該更加關(guān)心公眾的觀點(diǎn)(%)李光耀3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知你認(rèn)為政府是由追求自身利益的少數(shù)大集團(tuán)掌握,還是由為全體人民謀利益的那些人掌握?

追求自身利益的少數(shù)大集團(tuán)75

為全體人民謀利益的那些人19不知道7如果國(guó)家的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者更加緊密地遵循民眾的觀點(diǎn),你認(rèn)為今天的國(guó)家會(huì)變得怎樣?(測(cè)試了抽樣人數(shù)中一半的人)

變得更好81

變得更糟10不知道10表3-2大眾對(duì)政府制定政策的看法

美國(guó)公眾對(duì)政治家和政府部門的工作人員深表懷疑,認(rèn)為他們應(yīng)該更加關(guān)心公眾的觀點(diǎn)(%)李光耀3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking

大眾對(duì)政策制定的認(rèn)知我將為你閱讀下面兩段話,請(qǐng)你說(shuō)出最同意哪一段話。

(A)當(dāng)國(guó)會(huì)的成員在考慮如何對(duì)一個(gè)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行投票的時(shí)候,他們應(yīng)該對(duì)這個(gè)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行民意測(cè)驗(yàn),這樣有助于使他們了解民眾對(duì)此問(wèn)題的觀點(diǎn)。

(B)當(dāng)國(guó)會(huì)的成員在考慮如何對(duì)一個(gè)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行投票的時(shí)候,他們不應(yīng)該對(duì)這個(gè)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行民意測(cè)驗(yàn),這樣將轉(zhuǎn)移他們的注意力,不能很好地思考他們認(rèn)為正確的事情。

進(jìn)行民意測(cè)驗(yàn),了解公眾的觀點(diǎn)67

不進(jìn)行民意測(cè)驗(yàn),做那些自己認(rèn)為是正確的事情26不知道7資料來(lái)源:CenteronPolicyAlternatives,asreportedinThePollingReport,15February1999.

TheelitistmodelofagendasettingfocusesontheroleofLeadersinbusiness,finance,andthemedia,aswellasingovernment.Agendasetting“beginsinformallyincorporateboardrooms,Socialclubs,anddiscussiongroups,whereproblemsareIdentifiedas‘issues’tobesolvedbynewpolicies.Itendsingovernment,wherepoliciesareenactedandimplemented.”3.4.2EliteAgendaSettingG.WilliamDomhoff,WhoRulesAmerica?PowerandPoliticsintheYear20003.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

精英模型在政策議程的設(shè)定上,關(guān)注商業(yè)、金融、媒體以及政府領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的角色與作用。議程設(shè)定是“從公司的會(huì)議室、社會(huì)的俱樂(lè)部、討論小組這些類似的地方非正式地開始的,在這些地方,問(wèn)題被確認(rèn)為政策問(wèn)題,需要由新的政策來(lái)加以解決。而議程設(shè)定結(jié)束于政府環(huán)節(jié),在這里政策被制定并加以執(zhí)行。”3.4.2精英的議程設(shè)定G·威廉·多姆霍夫:

《誰(shuí)統(tǒng)治美國(guó)?2000年的力量與政治》3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

Candidatesforpublicofficeatalllevelsmustkeeptheirnamesandfacesbeforethevoters——inpublicappearances,interviews,speeches,andpressreleases.Whetherornottheirsuccesswasinfactaproductoftheirpolicyposition,theymaybelievethattheyhavearesponsibilitytoputforthpolicyproposalsconsistentwiththeircampaignmessagesandthemes.3.4.3PoliticalEntrepreneurship3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

所有級(jí)別公共職位的候選人都要保持自身為選民所關(guān)注——出席公共場(chǎng)合、接受采訪、發(fā)表演講或發(fā)布新聞。不論他們選舉獲勝是否是他們政策立場(chǎng)的結(jié)果,他們都會(huì)認(rèn)為自己有責(zé)任提出與他們?cè)谶x舉活動(dòng)中發(fā)布的信息與主題相一致的政策建議和方案。3.4.3政治企業(yè)家3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

Thepresidentandtheexecutivebrancharegenerallyexpectedtobethe“initiators”ofpolicyproposals,withmembersofCongressintheroleof“arbiters”ofpolicyalternatives.Presidentshavemanymotivationstoseizetheinitiativeinpolicymaking.First-termpresidentsmustbuildarecordofsuccessthatlatercanbeusedintheirreelectioncampaign.Second-termpresidentsareoftenmotivatedbyaconcernfortheir“placeinhistory.”3.4.4ThePresidentandWhiteHouseStaffPaulLight.ThePresident’sAgenda,19823.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

總統(tǒng)及其行政部門通常被認(rèn)為是政策建議的“發(fā)起者”,國(guó)會(huì)議員則是政策抉擇的“仲裁者”。多方面的動(dòng)機(jī)促使總統(tǒng)要掌握政策制定的提議權(quán)。首屆任期內(nèi),總統(tǒng)必須建立一個(gè)成功的記錄,以便他們?cè)趯で筮B任的競(jìng)選活動(dòng)中使用。第二屆任期內(nèi),總統(tǒng)很關(guān)心他們自己“在歷史上的地位”。3.4.4總統(tǒng)與白宮職員保羅·賴特:《總統(tǒng)的議程》,1982

3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

OccasionallyleadersintheCongresswilltrytosetforththeirownagendas.Themostwell-publicizedeffortwasthe1994“ContractwithAmerica”ledbythenSpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrich.Committeechairsenjoyaspecialadvantageincongressionalagendasetting;theycontroltheagendaoftheircommittee’shearings.Congressionalstaffsoftenplayanimportantroleinbringissuestotheattentionoftheirbosses.3.4.5CongressandLegislativeStaff3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

國(guó)會(huì)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)有時(shí)候也試圖提出他們自己的議程。最公開的努力是1994年由眾議院發(fā)言人紐特·金格里奇領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的“與美國(guó)簽約”共和黨40年來(lái)第一次拿下參議院委員會(huì)主席在國(guó)會(huì)的議程設(shè)定上具有特殊的優(yōu)勢(shì),他們控制著委員會(huì)的聽證安排。國(guó)會(huì)議員通常在使某些問(wèn)題引起他們上司的關(guān)注方面扮演著重要的角色。3.4.5國(guó)會(huì)和立法人員3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

Interestgroupsstaffsoftenbringvaluabletechnicalknowledgetopolicyformation,aswellaspoliticalinformationabouttheirgroup’spositionontheissues.Interestgroupsalsoprovidetestimonyatcongressionalhearingsaswellastechnicalreportsandanalysesusedbycongressionalstaffs.3.4.6InterestGroups3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

利益集團(tuán)的成員經(jīng)常為政策的形成提供非常有價(jià)值的技術(shù)性知識(shí),以及與本集團(tuán)在政策問(wèn)題上的立場(chǎng)相關(guān)的政治信息。利益集團(tuán)還會(huì)向國(guó)會(huì)提供聽證的證言,以及國(guó)會(huì)職員需要的技術(shù)報(bào)告和分析材料。3.4.6利益集團(tuán)3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown

自上而下的議程設(shè)定

Anondecision,aswedefineit,isadecisionthatresultsintheSuppressionorthwartingofalatentormanifestchallengetothevaluesandinterestsofthedecision-maker.Tobemoreclearlyexplicit,non-decision-makingisameansbywhichdemandsforchangeintheexistingallocationofbenefitsandprivilegesinthecommunitycanbesuffocatedbeforetheyareevenvoiced;orkeptcovert;orkilledbeforetheygainaccesstotherelevantdecision-makingarena;orfailingallthesethings,maimedordestroyedinthedecision-implementingstageofthepolicyprocess.PeterBachrach&MortonBaratz3.5“Nondecisions”:DecidingWhatWillNotBeDecided“不決策”:決定哪些問(wèn)題不予決策

不決策,如其被定義的那樣,能夠使決策者的價(jià)值觀和利益受到保護(hù),對(duì)一些潛在或明顯的挑戰(zhàn)進(jìn)行抑制或制止。更明確地說(shuō),不決策是一種政治手段,統(tǒng)治者用它來(lái)對(duì)付社會(huì)中存在的改變現(xiàn)行權(quán)力和利益分配格局的要求。這些要求在發(fā)出聲音之前可能就會(huì)被窒息,或處于地下狀態(tài),或在列入相關(guān)決策領(lǐng)域之前就被扼殺,或在政策過(guò)程的執(zhí)行階段致殘或毀滅。彼得·巴克拉克&莫頓·巴拉茨3.5“Nondecisions”:DecidingWhatWillNotBeDecided“不決策”:決定哪些問(wèn)題不予決策

Officialsdroptheideabecausetheydonotwantto“rocktheboat”.Thereisa“mobilizationofbias”withinthepoliticalsystemitself,thatis,“asetofpredominantvalues,beliefs,rituals,andinstitutionalprocedures…thatoperatesystematicallyandconsistentlytothebenefitofothers.”PeterBachrach&MortonBaratz:PowerandPoverty

3.5“Nondecisions”:DecidingWhatWillNotBeDecided“不決策”:決定哪些問(wèn)題不予決策

官員們之所以拋棄某種觀點(diǎn)是因?yàn)椴幌搿俺鰜y子”。在政治體系內(nèi)部,存在一種“偏見的動(dòng)員機(jī)制”,即“存在一套占主導(dǎo)地位的制度程序等,因?yàn)閷?duì)其他人也能帶來(lái)益處,所以能系統(tǒng)而持久地運(yùn)作”。彼得·巴克拉克&莫頓·巴拉茨:《權(quán)力與貧窮》3.5“Nondecisions”:DecidingWhatWillNotBeDecided“不決策”:決定哪些問(wèn)題不予決策

TelevisionisthemajorsourceofinformationforthevastmajorityofAmericans.Morethantwo-thirdsreportthattheyreceiveallormostoftheirnewsfromtelevision.Televisionisreallythefirstformofmasscommunication.(twitter;facebook;微信;internet;大數(shù)據(jù))Thevisualqualityoftelevision——theemotionalimpactthatisconveyedbypictures——enablestheTVnetworkstoconveyemotionsaswellasinformation.3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

對(duì)于絕大多數(shù)美國(guó)人來(lái)說(shuō),電視是其主要的信息來(lái)源。他們所接收到的超過(guò)2/3的報(bào)道或者絕大部分新聞都來(lái)自電視。電視的確是大眾傳媒的首要形式。電視的可視性——通過(guò)圖像傳達(dá)情感的這種沖擊力,使得電視網(wǎng)絡(luò)在傳遞信息的同時(shí)也傳遞了情感。3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

Theyarebothplayersandrefereesinthegameofpolitics.ThepowerofthepressinAmericaisaprimordialone.Itsetstheagendaofpublicdiscussion;andthissweepingpowerisunrestrainedbyanylaw.Itdetermineswhatpeoplewilltalkaboutandthinkabout——anauthoritythatinothernationsisreservedfortyrants,priests,parties,andmandarins.3.6.1MediaPowerTheodoreWhite.TheMakingofthePresident,19723.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

他們既是政治游戲中的運(yùn)動(dòng)員,又是裁判員。美國(guó)媒體的權(quán)力是原初的權(quán)力。它設(shè)定公眾討論的議程;這種廣泛的權(quán)力不受任何法律的制約。它還決定人們將要討論和思考的問(wèn)題——就是在其他國(guó)家里由暴君、牧師、政治黨派和官吏所掌握的權(quán)力。3.6.1傳媒權(quán)力西奧多爾·懷特:《總統(tǒng)是怎樣煉成的》,19723.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

Mediapowerisconcentratedinthehandsofarelativelysmallnumberofpeople:theeditors,producers,anchors,reporters,andcolumnistsoftheleadingtelevisionnetworks(ABC,CBS,NBC,FOX,andCNN)andtheprestigiouspress(NewYorkTimes,WashingtonPost,WallStreetJournal,Newsweek,Time,andU.S.NewsandWorldReport).3.6.1MediaPower3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

大眾傳媒的權(quán)力集中在相當(dāng)少的人手中:編輯、制片人、主播、記者、主要電視網(wǎng)絡(luò)(ABC—美國(guó)廣播公司、CBS—哥倫比亞廣播公司、NBC—全國(guó)廣播公司、FOX—??怂箯V播公司、及CNN—美國(guó)有線電視新聞網(wǎng))以及重要報(bào)刊(《紐約時(shí)報(bào)》、《華盛頓郵報(bào)》、《華爾街雜志》、《新聞周刊》、《時(shí)代周刊》、《美國(guó)新聞》和《世界報(bào)道》)的專欄作家手中。3.6.1傳媒權(quán)力3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

Newsmakinginvolvesall-importantdecisionsaboutwhatis“news”andwhois“newsworthy.”新聞制作包括所有重要的決策:什么是“新聞”和誰(shuí)是具有“新聞價(jià)值”的人物等。3.6.2Newsmaking3.6.2新聞制作3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

Inexercisingtheirjudgmentregardingwhichstoriesshouldbegiventelevisiontimeornewspaperspace,themediaexecutivesmustrelyontheirownpoliticalvaluesandeconomicinterestsasguidelines.Theprincipalsourceofdistortioninthenewsiscausedbytheneedfordrama,action,andconfrontationtoholdaudienceattention.Race,sex,violence,andcorruptioningovernmentarefavoritetopicsbecauseofpopularinterest.3.6.3MediaBias3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

媒體的主管人員在決定什么事情可以占用電視時(shí)間或在報(bào)紙上登載的時(shí)候,他們會(huì)依據(jù)自己的政治價(jià)值觀和經(jīng)濟(jì)利益作為指導(dǎo)原則。歪曲新聞現(xiàn)象的主要原因是追求戲劇性的效果以及要抓住觀眾的注意力而面臨的挑戰(zhàn)。種族、性別、暴利,以及政府中的腐敗都是受歡迎的主題,因?yàn)榇蟊妼?duì)它們感興趣。3.6.3媒體的偏見3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

3.6.4MediaEffectsChangingthebehaviorofvotersanddecisionmakers.Influencingattitudesandvaluestowardpolicyissues.Identifyingissuesandsettingtheagendaforpolicymakers.3.6AgendaSettingandMobilizingOpinion:TheMassMedia議程設(shè)定與輿論動(dòng)員:大眾傳媒

Policyformulationisthedevelopmentofpolicyalternativesfordealingwithproblemsonthepublicagenda.InfluentialThinkTanksTheBrookingsInstitutionTheAmericanEnterpriseInstituteTheHeritageFoundationThecouncilonForeignRelations3.7FormulatingPolicy(政策形成)

政策形成是指為解決提上公共議程的問(wèn)題而對(duì)備選政策

方案進(jìn)行開發(fā)。最有影響的智囊團(tuán)布魯金斯研究所美國(guó)企業(yè)研究所遺產(chǎn)基金會(huì)外交關(guān)系委員會(huì)3.7FormulatingPolicy(政策形成)

TheBrookingsInstitutionhaslongbeenthedominantpolicy-planninggroupforAmericandomesticpolicy.TheBrookingsInstitutionhasbeenveryinfluentialinplanningtheWaronPoverty,welfarereform,nationaldefense,andtaxingandspendingpolicies.TheBrookingsInstitution3.7FormulatingPolicy(政策形成)

布魯金斯研究所一直是美國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)政策的主要政策策劃組織。布魯金斯研究所在規(guī)劃反貧困斗爭(zhēng)、福利改革、國(guó)防、稅收和支出等方面的政策過(guò)程中,一直非常有影響力。布魯金斯研究所3.7FormulatingPolicy(政策形成)

TheAEIappealstobothDemocratsandRepublicanswhohavedoubtsaboutbiggovernment.InconfrontingsocietalproblemsthosewhotendtogravitatetotheAEIorbitwouldbeinclinedtolookfirstforamarketsolution…whiletheotherorbitpeoplehaveatendencytolookforagovernmentsolution.TheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute3.7FormulatingPolicy(政策形成)

WilliamBaroody,Jr.

美國(guó)企業(yè)研究所對(duì)民主黨人和共和黨人都具有吸引力,因?yàn)樗麄儗?duì)大政府持有懷疑態(tài)度。在面臨社會(huì)問(wèn)題時(shí),那些向美國(guó)企業(yè)研究所求助的人,傾向于首先尋求市場(chǎng)的方式來(lái)解決問(wèn)題,而向布魯金斯研究所救助的人則傾向于用政

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