“英語(yǔ)”語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論第六章筆記

Chapter6Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)1.Whatispragmatics?什么是語(yǔ)用學(xué)？Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.語(yǔ)用學(xué)研究的是說(shuō)某種語(yǔ)言的人怎樣用句子去實(shí)現(xiàn)成功的交際。由于交際的過(guò)程從本質(zhì)來(lái)說(shuō)是在一定的語(yǔ)境中表達(dá)意義的過(guò)程，因而語(yǔ)用學(xué)的本質(zhì)是一種意義研究。它是一種將語(yǔ)言置于使用的語(yǔ)境中去的意義研究。2.Pragmaticsandsemantics語(yǔ)用學(xué)和語(yǔ)義學(xué)Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,buttheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning,thecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.語(yǔ)用學(xué)和語(yǔ)義學(xué)都是對(duì)意義的語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究，但兩者是不同的。它們的本質(zhì)區(qū)別在于研究意義時(shí)是否考慮了語(yǔ)言使用的語(yǔ)境。沒(méi)有考慮到語(yǔ)境進(jìn)行的研究就沒(méi)有超出傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)義學(xué)的研究范圍；相反，考慮到語(yǔ)境進(jìn)行的研究就屬于語(yǔ)用學(xué)的研究范圍。3.Context語(yǔ)境Contextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.語(yǔ)境是語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解為說(shuō)話者和聽(tīng)話者所共有的知識(shí)。Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.共有的知識(shí)包括他們所使用的語(yǔ)言方面的知識(shí)和雙方對(duì)世界的認(rèn)識(shí)，包括對(duì)世界的總的認(rèn)識(shí)和對(duì)正在進(jìn)行的語(yǔ)言交際所處的環(huán)境的具體認(rèn)識(shí)。4.Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning句子意義和話語(yǔ)意義Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized,whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.句子的意義是抽象的，非語(yǔ)境化的，而話語(yǔ)的意義是具體的，受語(yǔ)境制約的。話語(yǔ)意義基于句子意義；它是一個(gè)句子的抽象意義在特定語(yǔ)境中的具體體現(xiàn)，或簡(jiǎn)而言之，在一個(gè)語(yǔ)境中的具體化。5.Speechacttheory言語(yǔ)行為理論Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’softhe20thcentury.言語(yǔ)行為理論是語(yǔ)言語(yǔ)用研究中的一個(gè)重要理論。它最初是由英國(guó)哲學(xué)家約翰.奧斯汀在20世紀(jì)50年代提出的。Accordingtospeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.根據(jù)言語(yǔ)行為理論，我們說(shuō)話的同時(shí)是在實(shí)施某種行為。Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.根據(jù)言語(yǔ)行為理論，說(shuō)話者說(shuō)話時(shí)可能同時(shí)實(shí)施三種行為：言內(nèi)行為，言外行為和言后行為。a)Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology.言內(nèi)行為是說(shuō)出詞、短語(yǔ)和分句的行為，它是通過(guò)句法、詞匯和音位來(lái)表達(dá)字面意義的行為。b)Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.言外行為是表達(dá)說(shuō)話者的意圖的行為，它是在說(shuō)某些話時(shí)所實(shí)施的行為。c)Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.言后行為是通過(guò)某些話所實(shí)施的行為，或講某些話所導(dǎo)致的行為，它是話語(yǔ)所產(chǎn)生的后果或所引起的變化，它是通過(guò)講某些話所完成的行為。Americanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneraltypes.Eachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose.美國(guó)的哲學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家約翰.舍爾把言外行為分為五類(lèi)，每一類(lèi)行為都有一個(gè)共同的、普遍的目的。這五大類(lèi)是：a)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue闡述類(lèi)：陳述或描述說(shuō)話者認(rèn)為是真實(shí)的情況示例：Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore./theearthisglobe.b)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething指令類(lèi)：試圖使聽(tīng)話者做某些事情示例：Openthewindow!

/Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?c)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction承諾類(lèi)：說(shuō)話者自己承諾未來(lái)要有一些行為。示例：Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.d)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate表達(dá)類(lèi)：表達(dá)對(duì)某一現(xiàn)狀的感情和態(tài)度。示例：I’msorryforthemessIhavemade./It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.e)declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething宣告類(lèi)：通過(guò)說(shuō)話引起驟變。示例：Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Ifireyou.Importantremark:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforth.每一類(lèi)中的行為都有同樣的目的，但具有同樣目的的言外行為可能具有不同程度的言外之力。6.Principleofconversation會(huì)話原則AmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).美國(guó)哲學(xué)家保羅.格賴斯提出的會(huì)話原則旨在解釋會(huì)話意義。他提出自然語(yǔ)言有其獨(dú)特的邏輯關(guān)系。他認(rèn)為會(huì)話的最高原則是合作，稱為合作原則。Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:在最高原則，即合作原則下，人們?cè)诮浑H中要遵守如下四個(gè)準(zhǔn)則：a)Themaximofquantity數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則●Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).使自己所說(shuō)的話達(dá)到當(dāng)前交談目的所要求的詳盡程度?！馜onotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.不能使自己所說(shuō)的話比所要求的更詳盡。b)Themaximofquality質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則●Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要說(shuō)自己認(rèn)為不真實(shí)的話?！馜onotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要說(shuō)自己缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話。c)Themaximofrelation關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則●Berelevant.說(shuō)話要貼切，有關(guān)聯(lián)。d)Themaximofmanner方式準(zhǔn)則●Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦澀的詞語(yǔ)。●Avoidambiguity.避免歧義。●Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).說(shuō)話要簡(jiǎn)要（避免累贅）?！馚eorderly.說(shuō)話要有條理。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated,or“flouted”.Mostofthes