簡明英語語言學(xué)教程(重點(diǎn)筆記)

LinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthscientificstudyofIanguage.Itisascientificstudybecauseit（a）isbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata.It（b）discoversthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem.It（c）collectslanguagefactsthatdisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.ThestudyofIanguageasawholeifoftencalledjenerallinguistics.phonetics（語音學(xué)）:thestudyofsoundsphonology（音位學(xué)）:howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningmorphology（形態(tài)學(xué)）:howmorphemes（詞素）arearrangedandcombinedtoformwords<syntax（句法學(xué)）:thestudyofrulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencessemantics語義學(xué)）:thestudyofmeaningpragmatics語用學(xué)）:thestudyofmeaninginthecontextofIanguageuseinterdisciplinarybranches:sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)）,psycholinguistics（心理語言學(xué)）,appliedlinguistics（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）Importantdistinctionsinlinguisticsprescriptive（規(guī)定性oldlinguistics）vs.descriptive描述性modernlinguistics）synchronic共時(shí)性）vs.diachronic（歷時(shí)性）:mostlinguisticstudiesareofsynchronicdescriptions,whichispriorinmodernlinguisticsspeechandwriting:speechispriortowritinginmodernlinguisticsIangue（語言系統(tǒng)abstractlinguisticsystem）andparole（話語/言語realizationofIangueinactualuse）:SwisslinguistF.dSaussure——forefatherofmodernlinguisticscompetenee（語言能力idealusersknowledgeofrulesofhisIanguage）andperformance（語言運(yùn)用actualrealizationofthisknowledge）:AmericanlinguistN.Chomskytraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics:SaussuresbookCourseinGeneralLinguistic^markedthebeginningofmodernlinguisticsLanguageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.LAD:LanguageAcquisitionDeviceChomskyArbitrariness（任意性）:Differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Productivity/creativity（能產(chǎn)性）:Constructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsarepossible,sothatlargenumberofsentencescanbeproduced.Duality（雙層性）:Twolevelsenablepeopletotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.lowerlevel（sounds）一higherlevel（words）Displacement移位性）:enablepeopletotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeorplace.Culturaltransmission文化傳承）:WearebornwiththeabilitytoacquireIanguage,thedetailsofIanguagesystemhavetobetaughtandlearned.Speechandwritingarethetwomediaforcommunication,ofwhichspeechismorebasic/primary.ThesoundswhichareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandmeaningfulincommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumofIanguage.Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.PhoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage,whichconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldsIanguages.articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,acousticphoneticsSpeechorgans:pharyngeal;cavity---throat;oralcavity---mouth;nasalcavity---noseIPA:國際音標(biāo)diacritics:變音符broadtranscription:寬式標(biāo)音(usedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks)narrowtranscription:嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音(usedbyphoneticiansintheirstudy)vowels（theairstreammeetswithnoobstruction）andconsonants（obstructed）stops（塞音）fricatives（擦音），affricates（塞擦音），liquids（流音），nasals,glides,bilabial（雙唇音）,laviodental（唇齒音）,dental（齒音），alveolar（齒齦音），palatal（腭音））velar軟腭音）,glottal（喉音）closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,openvowels（openness）unroundedvowels,roundedvowels（shapeofthelips）long/tensevowels----short/laxvowelsmonophthongs（單元音）,diphthongs雙元音）（singleorcombined）Phonologyandphoneticsdifferintheirapproachandfocus.phonology:howspeechsoundsformpatternsandareusedtoconveymeaningconcernedwithsoundsystemofaparticularIanguagephonetics:ofageneralnature,interestedinallthespeechsoundsAphone（音素）isaphoneticunitorsegment.（speechsoundsareallphones）aphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaningAphoneme（音位）isaphonologicalunit.（anabstractunitofdistinctivevalue）notparticularsound,butisrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontextThedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones（音位變體）ofthatphoneme.Rulesinphonology:Sequentialrules（序歹U規(guī)貝U）-rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularIanguage.Assimilationrule（同化規(guī)貝U）一assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“opying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.foreaseofarticulation（清晰發(fā)音）e.g.green,screamDeletionrule（省略規(guī)則）---e.g.desgnationSuprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.stress重音）---wordstressandsentencestressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.E.g.import（n.）im'ort（v.）//blackbirdvs.blackbirdtone（語調(diào)）一pitchvariation（音高變體）distinguishmeaningE.g.漢語四聲Intonation（音調(diào)）一Englishtones:fallingtone,risingtone,fall-risetone,rise-falltoneE.g.Thatsnotthebookhewants.Morphology:studyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andrulesbywhichwordsareformedopenclasswords開放類）:newwordscanbeadded—nouns,verbs,adjectiveandadverbsclosedclasswords封閉類）:grammatical“obnctional“wordsWordisthesmallestfreeformfoundinIanguage.Morphemesaretheminimalunitsofmeaning.Freeandboundmorphemes（自由詞素canbeawordbyitself粘著詞素mustbeattachedtoanotherone---affix）V—teachNAf—erDerivationalandinflectionalmorphemes（派生詞素和屈折詞素）FreemorphemesRootdog,catgrammarBoundmorphemesRoot“一-ceive Prefix峙-vert DerivationalFreemorphemesRootdog,catgrammarBoundmorphemesRoot“一-ceive Prefix峙-vert DerivationalAffixSuffix-mitun-,dis-Derivational-mentInflectional-s,-ing,-s,-erMorphologicalrulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.E.g.un-accept-ableAnotherwaytoformwordsiscompounding.E.g.bittersweetWordFormations:compounding,blending,backformation,shorteningSyntaxstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.CategoryisagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularIanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Syntacticcategorie—word-levelcategories:majorlexicalcategories(oftenassumedastheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt)一Noun(N)Verb(V)Adjective(A)Preposition(P)minorlexicalcategories-Determiner(Det)Degreewords(Deg)Qualifier(Qual)Auxiliary(Aux)Conjunction(Con)Threecriteria(條件)determiningawordscategory:meaning,inflection(變形)anddistribution(分布)Awordscategorycanbedeterminedonlybyallthreecriteria.Phrasecategoryisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP)phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontain:head,specifier,complementPhrasestructurerule---specialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismregulatingthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseNP—(Det)N(PP)anNPconsistsofadeterminer,anNhead,andaPPcomplementVPA(Qual)V(NP)aVPconsistsofaqualifier,aVhead,andanNPcomplementAP—(Deg)A(PP)……Pi(Deg)P(NP)……XPrule:XF—(specifier)X(complement)Coordinationrule:coordinatestructures(consistaconjunctionand)"/“or”X—X*ConXEitheranXoranXPcanbecoordinated;oneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon.Phraseelements:specifiers,complements,modifiersspecifiersdeterminerqualifierdegreewordheadsNVA/Pcomplementizers(Cs-wordsintroducingthesentencecomplementcomplementclause—sentenceintroducedbythecomplementizer--complementphrase(CP)matrixclause—constructioninwhichtheCPembeded嵌入As,Ns,PscanalltakeCPAdjectives:(heads)afraid,certain,awareNouns:(heads)fact,claim,beliefPrepositions:(heads)over,aboutmodifiers:alllexicalcategoriescanhavemodifiers.AP(+Ns):precedestheheade.g.averycarefulgirlPP(+Vs):followstheheade.g.openwithcareAdvP(+Vs):precedesorfollowstheheade.g.readcarefully/carefullyreadTheExpandedXPruleXP—(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)TheSrule:SANPVPInflp(=S)—NPInflVP-Inflcanbetakenbyanabstractcategoryencodedinaverbindicatingtenseoranauxiliary助動詞)Transformationaspecialrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanotherauxiliarymovement(-助動詞移位)inversion:moveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNPwithinlargerCPs(embeddedornot):inversion:moveInfltoC.P53Figure4-8doinsertionsRA):insertVinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition,thanmoveInfltoC.deepandsurfacestructure:e.g.W川thetrainarrive?Deep:SSurface:W川thetrainarrive?DetNInflVthetrainwillarriveTheXPruleADstructure—transformations—Sstructurewhmovement:movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence/thespecifierpositionunderCPP57Figure4-16P58Figure4-18moveaandconstraintsontransformationsmovea:generalruleforallthemovementrulesa:anyelementthatcanbemovedlimits:inversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCpositionnoelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructureSemanticsisthestudyofmeaning(fromalinguisticpointofview.)Thenamingtheory:ThewordsusedinaIanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Thelimitationsofthistheoryareobvious.Theresverbs,adjectives,etc.andalsoabstractnouns.Theconceptualistview:Wordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Contextualism:Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.Behaviorism:Themeaningofalanguageformisthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.Senseandrefereneearetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning,whicharerelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense:g.dogadomesticatedmammal...refertoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedeReferenee:dog'---AsaidtoB“Thedog'barking“refertoacertaindogknowntobothA&BMajorsenserelations:synonymy---wordsthatarecloseinmeaningdialectalsyn.(autumninBE&fallinAE),stylisticsyn.(daddy&father),syn.thatdifferinemotiveorevaluativemeaning(samemeaning,differentemotions)collocationalsyn.(differentusage),semanticallydifferentsyn.(differslightlyinmeaning)polysemy(onewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning)homonymy(homophones---twowordssameinsound,homographs---sameinspelling,completehomonyms---sameinbothsoundandspelling)hyponymy(relationbetweenageneralword-superordinate,andaspecificword--hyponyms)antonymy(wordsthatareoppositeinmeaning)gradableant.---e.g.hotvs.coldcomplementaryant.---e.g.malevs.femalerelationalant.---e.g.husbandvs.wifeSenserelationsbetweensentences:XissynonymouswithY.E.g.Hewasabachelorallhislife./Henevermarried-.X,True-Y,True;X,False---YFalseXisinconsistentwithY.E.g.Johrbmarried./John'abachelor.X,T—Y,F;X,——Y,TXentailsY.E.g.HesbeentoFrance./HesbeentoEurope.X,T—Y,T;X,-Y,maybeTorFXpresupposesY.E.g.Johrsbikeneedsrepairing./Johnhasabike.X,T—Y,T;X,-Y,TXisacontradiction.E.g.Myunmarriedsistermarriedabachelor.Xisalwaysfalse.Xissemanticallyanomalous.(absurdinthesense)componentialanalysis----lexicalmeaningE.g.man---+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication(謂項(xiàng))analysis---sentencemeaningE.g.Thekidslikeapples.---KID,APPLE(LIKE)Tomsmokes.---TOM(SMOKE)Itishot.---(BEHOT)PragmaticsstudieshowspeakersofaIanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication(meaninginacertaincontext).Sentencemeaningvs.utteraneemeaningUtteraneeistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunicationorcontext,itiscontext-dependent.Speechacttheory:aimtoanswerWhdowedowhenusingIanguage?----JohnAustininlate1950slocutionaryact(言內(nèi)行為一字面意思))illocutionaryact(言外行為一目的),perlocutionaryact(言后行為一結(jié)果)JohnSearleclassificationofillocutionaryacts---fivegeneraltypesofthingswedowithIanguageSpecificactsthatfallintoeachtypesharethesameillocutionarypointrepresentatives/assertive:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrueE.g.Theearthisaglobe.directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomethingE.g.Closethedoor./Willyouclosethedoor?commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionE.g.Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.expressive:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateE.g.It'skindofyouto.../I'msorryforthemess'emade.declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomethingE.g.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Indirectspeechact--primaryspeechact(goalofcommunication)+secondaryspeechact(meansbywhichheachievesthegoal)——SearleConventionalimplicature(暗示)&nonconventionalimplicature-GriceCon.imp.E.g.Heisrichbutheisnotgreedy.imp.Richpeopleareusuallygreedy.Theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperatetoconversewitheachother.ThegeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple.(CP)Fourmaxims(準(zhǔn)貝U)underCP:Themaximofquantity(informativebutnomorethanrequired),quality(don'saywhatyoubelievetobefalseorwhatyoulackadequateevidenee),relation(berelevant),manner(avoidobscurityorambiguity&bebriefandorderly)Thesemaximscanbeviolated.(whenmisleading,lying,etc.)Chap.7Languagechange(diachronic歷時(shí)的)Historicallinguisticsphonologicalchanges:vowels-themostdramaticchangemorphologicalandsyntacticchange:morphological:Additionofaffixes(Fusion融合wordword---base+suffix/prefix+base)Lossofaffixes-somearevi&oundchangessyntactic:changeofwordorderOldEnglish:subject-object-verbchangeinnegationruleOldEnglish:Ilovetheenot.lexicalandsemanticchange:lexical:Additionofnewwords-takesplaceobviouslyandquicklyCoinage(coinfornewthingsandobjects),Clippedwords縮略構(gòu)詞),Blending(combinepartsofotherwords,e.g.brunch),Acronyms首字構(gòu)詞e.g.WTO),Back-formation(subtractaffixesfromoldwords,e.g.donate---fromdonation”Functionalshift/Conversion(shiftwithoutaddingaffixes,e.g.toknee/cool;areject)Borrowing(borrowfromotherIanguages,e.g.bonusfromLatin,cyclefromGreek…)Lossofwords---takesplacegraduallyoverseveralgenerationsSomewordsareshort-livedbecauseofthediscontinuationoftheobjecttheyname.semantic:threeprocessesofsemanticchange---semanticbroadening:e.g.holiday=holydayinthepast,butanyrestdaytodaysemanticnarrowing:e.g.girl=youngpersonofeithersexinthepastsemanticshift:e.g.nice=ignorantathousandyearsagorecenttrends:movingtowardsgreaterinformality,influenceofAmericanEnglish,influeneeofscieneeandtechnology(spacetravel,computerandinternetlang.etc.)causesofIanguagechange:developmentofscienee&tech.,social&politicalchangesandneeds,thewaychildrenacquireIanguage,grammarsimplification,elaboration&complication,etc.NosinglecauseChap.8LanguageandsocietySociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenIanguageandsociety,betweentheusesofIanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofIanguagelive.(社會語言學(xué))Halliday&HudsonLanguageisusedtocommunicatemeaning,andtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.SocialbackgrounddeterminesthekindofIanguageoneuses,andIanguagereflectsoteinfo.speechcommunity---thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudyVarioussocialgroupsexistwithinaspeechcommunity.Asocialgroupmaydistinguishitselffromtherestofthecommunitybytheeducationalbackground,theoccupation,thegender,theage,oftheethnicaffiliationofitsmembers.speechvariety變體)一anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakersthreetypesofspeechvarietyofspecialinterest:regionaldialects,sociolects,registersTwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies:macro-sociolinguisticsµ-sociolinguisticsThevarietiesofIanguagearerelatedtotheusersandtheusetowhichtheIanguageisput.Dialectalvarieties:regionaldialect(linguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion一geographicalbarrier),sociolect(characteristicofaparticularsocialclass---differentsocialconditions),languageandgender(femalespeechislessassertiveandthussoundsmorepolite),languageandage(oldpeoplearemoreconservativeandlikeusingoldwordsmore),idiolect(personaldialect),ethnicdialect(socialdialectofalanguagecuttingacrossregionaldifferencese.g.BlackEnglish)Register:thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationlinguisticrepertoire-thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister(thefeaturesappropriatetothesituation):fieldofdiscourse語場purposeandsubject-matterofcommunicationnon-technicalortechnical,determinesthevocabularyusedandthephono.&gramm.features),tenorofdiscourse(語旨whotheparticipantsareandtherelationshipbetweenthemdeterminestheformalityandtheleveloftechnicality),modeofdiscourse語式themeansofcommunication)E.g.alectureonbiologyinatechnicalcollegeField:scientific(biological)Tenor:teache一student(formal,polite)Mode:oral(lecturing)Degreeofformality:intimate—casua-consultative—formal—frozenStandarddialects(employedbygovernment,usedbymassmedia,taughtinedu.institutions,basedonaselectedvarietyofIang.,usuallylocalspeechofpoliticalorcommercialcenters,forofficialpurposesoranyformaloccasions)Pidgin(avarietythatmixesorblendsIanguages)andCreole(apidginbecomingtheprimarylang.ofaspeechcommunityofwhichthechildrenacquirethepidginasnativeIang.)Chap.9Languageandcultureareinterdependentoneachotherandhaveevolvedtogether.Cultureisintegratedpatternofhumanknowledge,belief,&behavior.(material&spiritualcult.)Relationshipbetweenlang.&cult.:Languagesymbolizesculturalreality,playsamajorroleinperpetuatingofaculture,isrelatedtowhatthecultureisandaffectsacultureswayofthinking.Languageistoculturewhatpartistowhole.discoursecommunities---membersofthesocialgroupusesimilarlang.tomeettheirneedsdiscourseaccents---uniqueusesofeachgroupIanguage,thewaysandthestyleoftheirtalkingSapir-WhorfHypothesis(SWH):Languagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizetheirexperiences.Languagereflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.ContextisimportantincomplementingthemeaningsencodedintheIanguage.Anylinguisticsignhasadenotative指示意義一內(nèi)含),connotative(暗涵意義一夕卜延),oriconic(圖像意義)kindofmeaning.Allthesetypesofmeaningsareboundwithculturalencodingsorassociations.someculturaldifferencesinIanguageuse:greetingandtermsofaddress,gratitudeandcompliments,colorwords,privacyandtaboos(禁忌)，roundingoffnumbers,wordsandculturalspecificconnotations,cultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorsCulturecontact---acculturation(文化移入politicalconquestsandexpansions),assimilation(吸收immigration),amalgamation(合并ethnicalmix/synthesisratherthantheeliminationorabsorption)Culturaloverlap文化重疊owetosimilaritiesinnaturalenviron.andhumanpsychology)Culturaldiffusion(文化擴(kuò)展e.g.loanwordsgraduallyandunceasingly)culturalimperialism(文化帝國主義)一owetolinguisticimperialismspeciallanguagepolicyprotectingthepurityoftheirIanguages-linguisticnationalismChap.10Languageacquisition---chil'acquisitionofhismothertongueThreetheories:thebehaviorist行為主義語言習(xí)得觀),theinnatist(語法天生?一),theinteractionist(互動主義…)Behaviorist:Ianguageisakindofbehavior,languagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Childrenimitatewordsselectivelyandaccordingtotheirownunderstandingofthesoundsorpatterns,whichisbasedonwhatthechildrenhavealreadyknowninsteadofwhatisavailable“intheenvironment.ThistheoryfailstoexplainhowtheyacquiremorecomplexgrammaticalstructuresoftheIanguageInnatist:LADwasdescribedasanimaginaryblackbox”existingsomewhereinthehumanbrain.IissaidtocontainprinciplesthatareuniversaltoallhumanIanguages.UniversalGrammar:innateknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalsystemChildren'acquisitionofgrammaticalrulesisguidedbyprinciplesofaninnateUG.Interactionist:Ianguageisaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichhegrows.childdirectedspeech(CDS)(sIowrate,highpitch音高,richintonation抑揚(yáng),shorterandsimplersentencestructure)ThecognitivedevelopmentrelatestoIanguageacquisitionmainlyintwoways:First,aschildrensconceptualdevelopmentleadstotheirIanguagedevelopment,theirIanguagedevelopmentalsohelpsintheformationandenhancementoftheconcept.Second,thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceives理解)andexpresses.TwofactorsremarkablyrelevanttochildrenslanguagedevelopmentLanguageenvironmentisessentialinprovidinginputforIanguageacquisition:Behaviorist:IanguageenvironmentplaysamajorroleInnatist:environmentisastimulusthattriggersthepre-equippedLADInteractionist:callforthequalityoftheIanguagesamplesavailableintheling.environmentAgetheystarttolearntheIanguage:CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH):LADworkssuccessfullyonlywhen'tstimulatedattherighttimeaspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforIanguageacquisition(EricLenneberg)TwoversionsofCPH:strongon—childrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyweakone——Ianguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty——consensus:theresacriticalperiodforfirstIanguageacquisitionStagesinchildIanguagedevelopment:Phonologicaldevelopmen—childrenmustpassonestagebeforeproceedingtothenextVocabularydevelopmen—under-extension,over-extensionVocabularydevelopmentgoestogetherwiththechild'sknowledgeoftheenvironment.Childrenmayunder-extendoroverextenditwhenlearninganewword.under-extension:e.g.childgetsconfusedhearingthecolorofwhiteusedforpaperwhenhefirstthoughtitasthewordforsnowover-extension:achildtakesapropertyofanobjectandgeneralizesit.likelytooccurlaterGrammaticaldevelopmentPragmaticdevelopmentAtypicaldevelopment(非典型發(fā)展)hearingimpairment(聽力損傷),mentalretardation(智力缺陷),autism(孤獨(dú)癥),stuttering(口吃),aphasia(失語癥),dyslexia(誦讀困難),dysgraphia(書寫困難)Chap.11Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)isthesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage(NL/L1).Whetherthetargetlanguage(TL)tobelearntiscalledasecondlanguage(SL/L2)oraforeignlanguage(FL)dependsonitsstatusasasecondlanguageorforeignlanguageinthecountry.ContrastiveAnalysis(CA)--1960s:positive/negativetransfer:theformerfacilitatetargetlanguagelearning,thelatterinterfereCAcomparestheformsandmeaningsacrosstwolanguagestolocatethemismatchesordifferencessoastopredictthepossiblelearningdifficulty.Itwassoonfoundproblematic:uninformative,inaccurateErrorAnalysis(EA):independentlydescribethelearners'interlanguage(theirversionofthetargetlanguageandthetargetlanguageitself),andcomparethetwoformstolocatemismatches.Itgiveslessconsiderationtolearnesr'nativelanguagethanCA.reachheydayin1970sTwomainsortsoferrors:interlingualerrors(語際錯(cuò)誤resultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevels—phonological,lexical…))intralingualerrors(語內(nèi)專昔誤resultfromfaultyorpartiallearningoftheTL,independentoftheNLe.g.learningstrategies-basederror)Overgeneralization—theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituationsCrossassociation—interferenceoftwowordssimilarinmeaning,spellingandpronunciationEAwascriticizedforitsneglectoflearners'roleasactiveparticipantsinlearning.(mid-1970s)Interlanguage:Threeimportantcharacteristics—systematicity(系統(tǒng)性),permeability(滲透性),fossilization(石化aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.fossilizedpronunciationleadstoaccent)InputHypothesis---Krashen:twoindependentmeansorroutesofsecondlanguagelearning:acquisition:subconsciousprocesslearning:consciouseffortsLearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivin“gcomprehensibleinput”.”i+1Itreceivedcriticismlater,forhemistook“input”as“intake”.Individualdifferences:languageaptitude(天資),ageofacquisition,personalitymotivation---instrumentalmotivation(forexternalgoal),integrativemotivation(forthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture),resultativemotivation(forexternalpurposes),intrinsicmotivation(forpleasure),learningstrategies(motivationplaysanimportantroleinuseoflearningstrategies)--cognitivestrategies(認(rèn)知策略invoIvedinanalyzing,synthesizing合成)andinternalizing(內(nèi)在化)whathasbeenlearned),metacognitivestrategies(元認(rèn)知策略thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone'slearning),affect/socialstrategies(dealwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native)Chap.12Languageandthebrainneurolinguistics(神經(jīng)語言學(xué)):studyoflanguagedisordersandtherelationshipbetweenthebrainandIanguage.lateralization(側(cè)化)—cognitivefunctionscontrolledbyeithersideofthebrainThebrainisdividedintotwosections:thelowersection—brainstem(腦干sharedbyallanimalstokeepthebodyalivebymaintainingtheessentialfunctions)thehighersection—cerebrum(大腦differsindifferentspecies,notessentialforlife)cerebellum—attherearofthebrain,beneaththecerebrum,behindthebrainstemneuron神經(jīng)元Neuronsformthecortex(腦皮層thesurfaceofthebrain)Thecortexhasmanywrinkles:aridge(hills)calledsulcus,adeepandprominentsulcuscalledfissureThecortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebodyand“storehouse”of“memory”,itmakeshumandistinctiveintheanimalworld—animalshavenocortex.Thecortexisseparatedbythelongitudinalfissureintot