論著寫作-20140316課件

1、生物醫(yī)學(xué)英文論著寫作醫(yī)學(xué)英文論著寫作（紹興班）日程2014年8月2日（星期六）上午 寫作一般要求；單詞；句子； 段落結(jié)構(gòu)8月2日（星期六）下午 題目、摘要；正文寫作要點8月2日晚上 練習(xí)8月3日（星期日）上午 正文寫作要點；練習(xí)輔導(dǎo)8月3日（星期日）下午 考試（下午的考試移到中午）一、研究與論著1、論著在研究中的位置論著是整個科學(xué)研究工作的重要組成部分，既是一個研究過程的終點，也是下一個研究的起點。研究立題研究設(shè)計論著寫作做什么？創(chuàng)新性、重要性怎么做？合理性、嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)性怎么闡述研究全貌？問題為中心、清楚研究結(jié)果反 思文獻檢索、閱讀、引用一、研究與論著2、論著應(yīng)當(dāng)清楚地反映研究要素研究由3項基本要素

2、組成： 處理因素 試驗對象 試驗效應(yīng)作為研究的重要組成部份，論著中要準(zhǔn)確反映研究的基本特征，就必須在各部分寫作中準(zhǔn)確反映3項基本要素。二、論著的內(nèi)在要素：科學(xué)內(nèi)涵和表達形式1. 科學(xué)內(nèi)涵（科學(xué)價值）創(chuàng)新性，重要性，合理性這些特征主要取決于前期的研究工作，但是，寫作中應(yīng)充分反映這些價值。2. 表達形式（寫作技巧）寫作內(nèi)容圍繞所研究的問題，寫作技巧在于清楚的寫作（即不會使讀者誤解或不理解）二、論著的內(nèi)在要素：科學(xué)內(nèi)涵和表達形式需要掌握論著寫作和語言表達兩方面技巧生物醫(yī)學(xué)論著寫作，包括論著寫作的基本技巧以及用中文或英文準(zhǔn)確表述的語言技巧。用英文寫作論著對于非英語國家的人來說，存在著語言障礙，要學(xué)會準(zhǔn)

3、確使用英文。在閱讀英文文獻時要注意英文表達方式，逐漸積累形成語感，擺脫中文寫作習(xí)慣的干擾基本構(gòu)成及其要點單詞選擇：根據(jù)語言習(xí)慣 符合學(xué)術(shù)規(guī)范 準(zhǔn)確反映研究特點句子結(jié)構(gòu)：根據(jù)語法規(guī)律排列單詞 準(zhǔn)確反映主題及信息 簡單、直截了當(dāng)段落結(jié)構(gòu)：根據(jù)主題要求排列句子 采用主題句+支持句的組織形式 保持句子之間的緊密聯(lián)系 突出重點信息單詞選擇原則 A. 準(zhǔn)確（precise） B. 簡單（simple） C. 必要（necessary） D. 熟悉（familiar） E. 區(qū)別相似而不相同的單詞1、單詞選擇（word choice）1. 準(zhǔn)確（precise） 描述事物特點采用最切合的單詞，避免用一些不明

4、確的單詞。1、單詞選擇（word choice）Example Animals were studied in utero 4-9 weeks later.Example The short-circuit current remained increased for several hours.1、單詞選擇（word choice）Example The change in short-circuit current produced by 10-5 M major basic protein was 85% of the maximal response to isoproterenol.

5、 A higher concentration of major basic protein would therefore probably have produced only a minimal further increase in the short-circuit current.1、單詞選擇（word choice）2. 簡單（simple） 論著中用的單詞（尤其是非專業(yè)用語）應(yīng)盡可能簡單，要用常用詞匯，不要用冷僻詞匯。1、單詞選擇（word choice）Example All heat-stable materials utilized in the isolation an

6、d processing of solution to be injected into mice were sterilized prior to use.Revision All heat-stable materials used in the isolation and processing of solution to be injected into mice were sterilized before use.1、單詞選擇（word choice）Example The Doppler signal displayed continuous, low-frequency blo

7、od flow that was directed hepatopatally.Revision The Doppler signal displayed continuous, low-frequency blood flow that was directed toward the liver.1、單詞選擇（word choice）3. 必要（necessary） 省略不重要的重復(fù)或無意義的詞匯，保留句子中明確說明信息的詞匯。Example After 4 h of hemodialysis, we abruptly ended the hemodialysis procedure.Exa

8、mple Oxygen uptake in response to drugs was examined and found to vary considerably.1、單詞選擇（word choice）4. 熟悉（familiar） 選用讀者均熟悉的詞匯。專業(yè)詞匯要符合規(guī)范，面向非本專業(yè)的讀者應(yīng)對專業(yè)性強的術(shù)語作必要的說明解釋，或改用能普遍接受的詞匯。注意：不自造單詞（no invented words） 不用難懂的單詞（no jargon） 盡量少用縮寫詞（few if any abbreviations）1、單詞選擇（word choice）A. 不自造單詞Example We stu

9、died the effect of clonidine on the hindleg reflexes of the spinalized rat. 1、單詞選擇（word choice）Example After cutdowns of a femoral artery and vein, we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs.Revision 1 After inserting catheters into a femoral artery and vein, we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs

10、.Revision 2 After surgical cannulation of a femoral artery and vein, we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs.1、單詞選擇（word choice）C. 盡量少用縮寫詞 This study measured the responses of forearm blood flow (FBF) and forearm vascular resistance (FVR) after isometric handgrip exercise (IHE) and related them to

11、 plasma norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) in 12 normotensives (N) and 14 primary hypertensives (PH). IHE was performed at 30% of maximum voluntary contraction using a calibrated dynamometer. Systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), heart rate (HR), FBF, FVR, NE, and E wer

12、e measured in the resting arm before and after IHE. Pre-exercise SBP and DBP were higher in PH than in N. FVR was similar in PH and N. FBF was higher in PH compared to other matched normotensives. 1、單詞選擇（word choice）縮寫詞的種類縮寫詞可分為：標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（standard，可自由采用）: DNA， cAMP，AIDS ，mg , h , m , s半標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（semi-standard，在專業(yè)

13、期刊可自由 采用）: FEV1 ， TLC (total lung capacity)非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（non-standard，盡量避免）: Group A, IHE (isometric handgrip exercise) 1、單詞選擇（word choice）什么情況下用縮寫詞A. 詞匯過長或特別難讀B. 單詞或詞組在論文中反復(fù)出現(xiàn)許多次C. 下述情況也采用縮寫詞：化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)式；數(shù)學(xué)公式；計量單位；表格中的變量表示（如表格空間不夠）等D. 在論文題目中一般不用縮寫詞1、單詞選擇（word choice）5. 區(qū)別相似而不相同的單詞注意單詞之間的微妙差別，這對于準(zhǔn)確表達事物往往至關(guān)重要。 1、單詞選

14、擇（word choice）句子是寫作中需要掌握的第二個層次的技術(shù)，包含許多語法規(guī)律，也包含從專業(yè)角度考慮如何清楚地闡明事物的要求。論著中，句子有一個主題（主語）并傳達信息（動詞） ，其最重要和最基本的要求是： 簡單（simple） 直截了當(dāng)（direct）。2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）寫好句子的要點 A. 句子核心內(nèi)容（主題和信息）的表達 B. 避免名詞堆砌 C. 提倡寫短句 D. 代詞的先行詞應(yīng)當(dāng)明確 E. 對邏輯關(guān)系上平行的內(nèi)容采用并列句型 F. 避免語法錯誤2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）1. 句子核心內(nèi)容的表達 句子的主題（一件什么事）用主

15、語（名詞）表示 句子的信息（是怎樣的事，包含行為、動作）用動詞表示2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）(1) 用主語表達句子的主題Example The patient showed no change in symptoms.Revision 1 The patients symptoms did not change.Revision 2 The patients symptoms were unchanged.2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）(2) 用動詞表達句子的行為、動作A. 不適當(dāng)?shù)赜弥髡Z表達句子的行為、動作等Example An increas

16、e in heart rate occurred.Revision Heart rate increased.Example A progressive decrease in the death rate occurred.Revision The death rate decreased progressively.2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）B. 不適當(dāng)?shù)赜觅e語表達句子的行為、動作Example The new drug caused a decrease in heart rate. Revision The new drug decreased heart r

17、ate.Example We made at least two analyses on each specimen.Revision We analyzed each specimen at least twice.2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）2. 避免名詞堆砌 三個或更多的名詞并列在一起，會造成單詞之間關(guān)系不清楚。因此，應(yīng)當(dāng)采用適當(dāng)?shù)男问?，解開名詞的纏結(jié)，使每一個名詞的意義都能清楚地表達。形容詞放在名詞詞組前，也需要拆開名詞詞組，使形容詞與被修飾的名詞放在一起。2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）Example filament length var

18、iabilityRevision variability of filament lengthExample air spaces phospholipid poolRevision phospholipid pool in the air spaces (or: pool of phospholipids in the air spaces)2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）形容詞加入到名詞詞組Example chronic sheep experimentsRevision chronic experiments in sheepExample peripheral ch

19、emoreceptor stimulationRevision stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptors2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）3. 提倡寫短句 一個句子不宜包含過多的內(nèi)容，否則多種概念、意義的關(guān)系不容易被讀者很快理解。提倡每一句子只陳述一個事物，使每一句子的平均長度控制在22個單詞左右。越是難理解的復(fù)雜內(nèi)容，越要用短句來敘述，將復(fù)雜事物分解成簡單的單元，便于讀者容易讀懂。2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）Example (47 words) To study the mechanisms invol

20、ved in the beneficial effects of hydralazine on ventricular function in patients who have chronic aortic insufficiency, a radionuclide assessment of ventricular function was performed in 15 patients with pure aortic insufficiency, functional capacity I or II, at rest and during supine exercise.2、句子結(jié)

21、構(gòu)（sentence structure）Revision Our aim was to assess the mechanisms involved in the beneficial effects of hydralazine on ventricular function in patients who have chronic aortic insufficiency. For this assessment, we did a radionuclide study of ventricular function in 15 patients at rest and during s

22、upine exercise. All patients had pure aortic insufficiency and were in functional capacity I or II.2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）5. 對邏輯關(guān)系上平行的內(nèi)容采用并列句型 如兩種或多種需要表達的意義有內(nèi)在的邏輯關(guān)系，則應(yīng)當(dāng)采用并列句型表達。 兩個句子之間的并列關(guān)系可用配對句表示 三個或更多的句子的并列關(guān)系可用系列句表示配對句和系列句中每個句子的結(jié)構(gòu)形式一致，使用相應(yīng)的連接詞，可使各句之間的關(guān)系更加清楚，閱讀更加順利。2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）(1)

23、配對（pairs）對比（contrast）指存在差異的兩個事物: Cardiac output decreased by 10% BUT blood pressure was unchanged.相似（similarity）相似是指性質(zhì)相類似的兩個事物: We hoped to increase the complete response AND to improve survival.選擇（alternative）指兩個事物中做出選擇: In dogs, about 20% of plasma glucose carbon is recycled via tricarbon compound

24、s EITHER in cold OR at neutral ambient temperature.比較（comparison）指兩個事物之間變化程度或其它性質(zhì)上的差異: Pulmonary blood flow WAS always GREATER THAN renal blood flow.2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）（2）系列（series）在系列句中，平行的方式與配對句時一樣，所有平行句的句型（結(jié)構(gòu)、單詞類型等）應(yīng)當(dāng)相同。We washed out the lungs five times with Solu

25、tion I, instilled 8-10 ml of the fluorocarbon-albumin emulsion into the trachea, and incubated the lungs in 154 mM NaCl at 37C for 20 min.6. 避免語法錯誤 漢語語法錯誤需要避免；英語與漢語有較大的語言差異，因此更應(yīng)加以注意并避免。中國研究者在論著寫作中常常犯各種語法錯誤，有些錯誤多加注意可以避免；有些錯誤或習(xí)慣寫法則較難意識到，需要平時注意文獻中句子的表達方式，或請英語為母語的專家指點。2、句子結(jié)構(gòu)（sentence structure）段落是寫作中需要掌

26、握的第三個層次的技術(shù)，屬于較大結(jié)構(gòu)的寫作技巧，其要點常常與中文論著寫作相同。段落由多個句子排列組合而成，闡述一個相對完整的事項，需要注意掌握合理的段落結(jié)構(gòu)、保證良好的連貫性及做到重點突出。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）1. 段落的組織結(jié)構(gòu) 在可能的情況下，段落應(yīng)當(dāng)由主題句和支持句構(gòu)成。主題句陳述段落的主題或主要信息，一般應(yīng)放在段落開始的位置，使讀者在一開始就明白該段落將闡述的內(nèi)容。支持句合乎邏輯地對段落主題各個方面作出詳細(xì)的說明、論證。即：先建立期待，然后去滿足它這樣，讀者既能馬上知道段落闡述的要點，又能在隨后的句子中知道相應(yīng)的細(xì)節(jié)。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph s

27、tructure）Example 1 There are three different theories put forward for the very slow relaxation of catch muscles of molluscs. One theory holds that catch is due to some unusual property of myosin in these muscles that produces a slow rate of detachment (12). In this theory, paramyosin would have no s

28、pecial role beyond that of providing the long scaffolding on which the myosin is positioned as well as the mechanical strength for the large tensions developed. The second theory holds that tension is developed by actin-myosin interaction but is maintained by paramyosin interactions (13,14). Because

29、 the thick filaments are of limited length, interaction would have to occur through fusion of thick filaments (15). A third theory, to which I subscribe, pictures a structural change in the paramyosin core affecting the rate of breaking of myosin-actin links at the filament surface (5,16).3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（par

30、agraph structure）3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Example 2 Samples of inspired, end-tidal, and mixed-expired gases were taken during the 2-h wash-in period. Inspired gas samples were collected proximal to the non-rebreathing valve. End-tidal gas samples were collected through a catheter, the tip of which

31、 was placed near the tracheal end of the endotracheal tube. The endotracheal tube was connected to the non-rebreathing valve with flexible Teflon tubing whose internal volume was approximately 100 ml. Teflon was used to avoid the absorption and release of anesthetic that occur with plastics such as

32、polyethylene, and the added 100 ml of dead space was used to prevent contamination of end-tidal samples with inspired gas. Expired gases were conducted via a flexible Teflon tube to an aluminum mixing chamber. Mixed-expired gas samples were collected distal to the aluminum mixing chamber. All gas sa

33、mples were collected in 50-ml glass syringes that were stored upright (to produce a slight positive pressure) until analyzed.2. 連貫性 段落闡述的一個完整事項，應(yīng)當(dāng)使主題始終貫穿整個段落，需要采用多種技巧保持內(nèi)在的連貫性。邏輯聯(lián)系緊密的段落結(jié)構(gòu)（主題句支持句）是保持連貫性最基本的方式。此外，要注意段落各句子之間內(nèi)容的連續(xù)，中間不能缺少關(guān)鍵步驟的敘述，也不能中途插入無關(guān)的話題。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）保持連貫性的技巧a) 不遺漏必要的步驟b

34、) 重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞c) 使用連接用語表明各種關(guān)系d) 保持?jǐn)⑹鲰樞蛞恢耬) 保持一致的視角（注意主語類型）f) 并列結(jié)構(gòu)表達并列的論點g) 對段落主題和小主題作明確的標(biāo)記3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）（1）重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞A. 準(zhǔn)確地重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞 句子間重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞是為了將各觀點很好地連接起來，便于讀者理解，如果更換關(guān)鍵詞的表達形式很可能造成意思混亂，使人誤解。所以，在重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞時，一般以同一單詞或詞組的形式準(zhǔn)確地重復(fù)。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Example 6 Digitalis increases the contractility of the m

35、ammalian heart. This change in inotropic state is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane.看了這一段落，非本專業(yè)的讀者不明白inotropic state的意義，也不明白與上一句的聯(lián)系。其實，contractility和inotropic state在此其實是同一個意義。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Revision Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian

36、 heart. The increased contractility is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane.修改后，關(guān)鍵詞contractility被準(zhǔn)確地重復(fù)，使得段落的連貫性得到保持。對increased這個特點也進行了重復(fù)，而不象原文中僅用不明確的change來表述。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Example1 The extent of digestion of the liver was determined empirically, on the b

37、asis of the softness of the liver in response to gentle scratches applied with sterile tweezers. When these scratches broke the surface of the liver, digestion was considered complete.2 The key enzyme in hepatocyte isolation is collagenase, but there is surprisingly little definitive information abo

38、ut what constitutes a good enzyme preparation for efficacy of cell yield and viability.第一個段落開始時用的關(guān)鍵詞是“digestion”和“l(fā)iver”（A句和B句），但在下一個段落（C句）變成“isolation”和“hepatocyte”。這兩個段落的關(guān)系令人不能馬上理解。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Revision1 The extent of digestion of the liver was determined empirically, on the basis of

39、 the softness of the liver in response to gentle scratches applied with sterile tweezers. When these scratches broke the surface of the liver, digestion was considered complete.2 The key enzyme used to digest liver is collagenase, but there is surprisingly little definitive information about what co

40、nstitutes a good enzyme preparation for efficacy of cell yield and viability.修改后，C句關(guān)鍵詞改成與A句和B句一樣的“digestion”和“l(fā)iver”，使得兩個段落連貫。如果作者希望在第二個段落包括后兩個關(guān)鍵詞“isolation”和“hepatocyte”，C句可改成“The key enzyme used to digest liver for isolation of hepatocytes is collagenase ”。B. 避免變換關(guān)鍵詞造成概念混亂ExampleIn humans, apo-B10

41、0, mainly synthesized in the liver, and apo-B48, mainly synthesized in the intestine, are the products of a single apo-B gene (ref). The production of apo-B48 in the human intestine is the result of an RNA-editing process that changes a glutamine codon (CAA) of the mRNA for apo-B100 into a translati

42、onal stop codon (UAA). This apo-B mRNA-editing process does not occur in human livers, so apo-B48 is not synthesized in human livers. However, the mRNA-editing process, and thus apo-B48 formation, occurs in mouse and rat livers.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）D. 重復(fù)的關(guān)鍵詞應(yīng)當(dāng)出現(xiàn)在句首所重復(fù)的關(guān)鍵詞如出現(xiàn)在下一句的句首，可以使連貫性達到最佳效

43、果；如果關(guān)鍵詞被放在句尾則連貫性就會減弱，讀者依然會覺得言語晦澀，難以讀懂。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Example Digitalis increased the contractility of the mammalian heart. Changes in the calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane cause the increased contractility.重復(fù)的關(guān)鍵詞出現(xiàn)越遲，對保持連貫性的作用將越弱。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）F. 專用詞與類別詞轉(zhuǎn)換將一個專用詞（

44、special term）轉(zhuǎn)換到類別詞（category term），或從類別詞轉(zhuǎn)換到專用詞。類別詞概括一類事物的屬性，如”rodents”是rats、mice、guinea pigs等動物的總稱。專用詞和類別詞之間轉(zhuǎn)換的技術(shù)要點，是保持這些詞匯之間的連貫性。在轉(zhuǎn)換時，用類別詞定義專用詞，類別詞有了定義后，就能成為起連接作用的關(guān)鍵詞。連接關(guān)鍵詞的方式：i. 將定義（說明）緊靠在需作定義詞匯的前面或后面；ii. 將定義（說明）緊靠在需作定義詞匯后面的，用逗號隔開；iii. 確認(rèn)定義重復(fù)了上一句的關(guān)鍵詞，或為下一句準(zhǔn)備了關(guān)鍵詞。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）用“Which

45、is”句型的簡略形式連接專用詞和類別詞ExampleThe v-erbB gene is related to the neu oncogene. Both oncogenes have 例句中，neu oncogene是一種oncogene，但v-erbB gene是什么？RivisionThe v-erbB gene, an oncogene of the avian erythroblastosis virus, is related to the neu oncogene. Both oncogenes have 3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）用“Namely”

46、詞組連接專用詞和類別詞Example The family of TGF-signaling molecules play inductive roles in various developmental contexts. One member of this family, Drosophila Decapentaplegic (Dpp), serves as a morphogen that patterns both the embryo and adult. 在該例中，在專用詞Drosophila Decapentaplegic前，用類別詞one member of this fam

47、ily作了定義，這樣與上一句關(guān)鍵詞family建立了聯(lián)系。這種定義是“namely”句型的簡略形式，其完整的形式是“One member of this family, namely Drosophila Decapentaplegic (Dpp), ”。如省略了Drosophila Decapentaplegic前的“one member of this family”，就會破壞兩句的連貫性。3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）（2）保持一致的視角在論著寫作中，視角（point of view）是指敘述問題的角度，最重要的是句子的主語（反映主題），主語不同，敘述角度就不同。

48、 當(dāng)相連幾個句子，選用相同的單詞或同一類型的詞作主語，闡述同一主題時，視角就一致。相反，如果主題相同而主語不同時，視角就不一致，閱讀時難度大大增加。 3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）A. 相同的詞Example Propranolol had variable effects on the hypoxemia-induced changes in regional blood flow. In the cerebrum, the increase in blood flow caused by hypoxemia was not significantly altered

49、 by propranolol. However, in other organs, such as the gut and the kidneys, and in the peripheral circulation, propranolol caused a more severe decrease in blood flow than did hypoxemia alone.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）RevisionPropranolol had variable effects on the hypoxemia-induced changes in regi

50、onal blood flow. In the cerebrum, propranolol did not significantly alter the increase in blood flow caused by hypoxemia. However, in other organs, such as the gut and the kidneys, and in the peripheral circulation, propranolol caused a more severe decrease in blood flow than did hypoxemia alone.3、段

51、落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）B. 相同類型的詞Example The control injection of naloxone produced no significant changes in arterial blood pressure or heart rate. The arterial blood pressure or heart rates measured after 24 h of morphine infusion did not change significantly.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Revision 1

52、The control injection of naloxone produced no significant changes in arterial blood pressure or heart rate. Twenty-four hours of morphine infusion produced no significant changes in arterial blood pressure or heart rate.Revision 2 Neither the control injection of naloxione nor the 24-h morphine infu

53、sion significantly altered arterial blood pressure or heart rate.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Example Olsen et al. (22) concluded that series interaction was more important than direct interaction; Visner et al. (23), using a nearly identical preparation and protocol, concluded the opposite. We found

54、that direct interaction was about one-half as important as series interaction in determining left ventricular volume at end diastole when the pericardium was on, and that the direct interaction effect decreased when the pericardium was removed.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）Revision Olsen et al. (22) co

55、ncluded that direct interaction was less important than series interaction; Visner et al. (23), using a nearly identical preparation and protocol, concluded the opposite. We found that direct interaction was about one-half as important as series interaction in determining left ventricular volume at

56、end diastole when the pericardium was on, and that the direct interaction effect decreased when the pericardium was removed.3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）3. 突出重點 需要強化（或突出）重點信息，淡化不重要的信息，也就是要提高信噪比，只有降低噪聲（次要內(nèi)容），才能增加信號（主要信息）的比重。突出重點的技巧：淡化次要信息，強化重要信息 濃縮信息，省略不重要的信息 將不重要的信息放在段落的次要位置 將重要信息放在段落的突出位置 標(biāo)記重要信息 重復(fù)重要

57、信息 直接陳述而不是隱含重要信息3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）段落中最突出（最重要）的位置是： 句子、段落或節(jié)的開始；句子第一個名詞，特別是作為主語時。較突出地位置是： 句子、段落或節(jié)的結(jié)尾。不突出（次要）的位置是： 句子、段落或節(jié)的中間；內(nèi)容放在括號內(nèi)；句子中間的形容詞或名詞。 3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）（1）濃縮或省略次要信息突出重點信息最重要的技巧之一，是用濃縮和省略的方式淡化次要信息。在許多發(fā)表的論著中，過多的次要信息淹沒了重要信息，就象“只見樹不見林”。解決的方法是平衡兩個極端情況：敘述所有知道的事物；提煉內(nèi)在信息。要記?。骸霸肼曉?/p>

58、大，信號越?。╰he more noise, the less message）”3、段落結(jié)構(gòu)（paragraph structure）ExampleMean pulmonary artery pressure and cardiac output did not change after instillation of serum alone or serum with epinephrine or terbutaline (Table 1). Left atrial pressure fell slightly below baseline after all three treatmen

59、ts but the decrease was statistically significant only for epinephrine and terbutaline (Table 1). Peak airway pressure increased slightly after all three treatments but the increase was statistically significant only for epinephrine and terbutaline (Table 1). There was a significant increase in lung

60、 lymph flow and a significant decrease in the lymph-to-plasma protein concentration ratio after all three treatments. Both the rise in lymph flow and the decease in the lymph-to-plasma protein concentration ratio were greater after terbutaline and epinephrine than after serum alone (Table 2). Arteri