戴偉棟新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程筆記

1、戴版語言學(xué)Chapter OneIntroductionPart oneWhat is linguistics?Definitionlinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article bef

2、ore language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. Interest of linguists is “what is said”The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics-the study of language as a

3、 wholethe core of linguisticsPhoneticsthe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonologythe study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphologythe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntaxthe study of the

4、 rules for sentence formationSemanticsthe study of meaning.Pragmaticsthe study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistic

5、s-the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics.prescripti

6、ve vs. descriptiveprescriptivethe linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptivethe linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Modern l

7、inguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronicthe description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic-the description of a language as it changes through timethe historical development of language overa period of timeanother name: historical linguistics.A sync

8、hronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic Speech is prior to writing:writing system is always “invented” by its users to record speech.speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance. (3)speech is acquired as mother tongu

9、e while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the “revised” record of speech.Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist-F. de Saussuresociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and

10、make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue-the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech communityabstract & stable.Parole-the realization of language in actual useconcrete & variedCompetence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomskypsychological vie

11、wPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules. Competencethe ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.Performancethe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics- the publicati

12、on of Saussures “Course in General Linguistics” in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:descriptive vs. prescriptive.spoken language vs. written language.ML doesnt force languages into a framework. Part TwoWhat is language?Definitionlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols

13、 used for human communication.Systemelements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrarythere is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.the primary medium for all language is sound.Humanlanguage is human-specific.Design featuresproposed by American l

14、inguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationhuman-specific.Arbitrarinessthere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not en

15、tire arbitrary.Productivitylanguage is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals byits usersusers can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.Duality(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two

16、sets of structures, ortwo levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaningsound & meaningDisplacementlanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined mattersin the past, present, or future, in a

17、faraway placesIt doesnt matter how far away the topic is of conversation isin time or spacefree from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.Cultural transmissionthe capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language systemshould be taught and learned.-language

18、is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The functions of language.Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content

19、” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this functionthe most important function.Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence

20、of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such exclamatory expressions.Phatic: this is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aim

21、ing to establishing a harmonious and intimaterelationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了沒？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isnt it?Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for languagessake, i.e. no language in any practical purposes, such as and childr

22、ens babbles and chanters chanting.Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use “book” to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use “the word book” to stand

23、by the concept “book” as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in h

24、uman communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds. Part Two: PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the worlds languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies s

25、ounds from the speakers point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organsto articulate the soundsspeakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearers point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by thehearerheareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at

26、 the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to anotherphysical propertiesOrgans of Speechthe pharyngeal cavitythroat.the oral cavity-mouth.tongue: most flexible.the nasal cavitynose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, m, n, .voi

27、cing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symb

28、ols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds

29、 in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.Classification of English Speech Classification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obst

30、ructed in one way or another. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction. 1 Classification of English consonants:Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created. Stops: p, b, t, d, k, g.Fricatives: f, v, s, z, , , 3, h. Affricates: t,d3L

31、iquids: l, r.Nasals: m, n, Glides: w, jsemi-vowelsplace of articulation : The place where obstruction is created. Bilabial: p, b, m, w.Labiodental: f, vDental: , Alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, rPalatal: 3, t,d3, j. Velar: k, g, Glottal: h.Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voice

32、less help describe a consonant. 2 Classification of English 1 the position of the tongue:front: i:, i, e, , , a central: :, , /back: u:, u, o, o:, a: 2 the openness of the Close vowels: i:, i, u:, Semi-close: e, :Semi-open: , o:Open vowels: , a, /,o, a: 3 shape of the lips:unrounded: i:, i, e, , , a

33、, :, , /,a:rounded: u:, u, o, o:. 4 length of the sound:long vowels: i:, :, u:, o:, a:short vowels: i, e, , , a, , /,u, o.5 monophthong : the individual vowelabove vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.ei, ai, oi, i,

34、au, u, e, eight diphthongs. Part Three: PhonologyPhonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the worlds languages. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.

35、Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of languagethe speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languageshow theyare produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they posses

36、s, how they can be classified.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear l and dark l:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced.

37、 Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which

38、 can distinguish two sounds.allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear l and dark l of the same l, aspirated p and unaspirated p of the same p in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairpho

39、nemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning. E.g. b in bit andp in pit form phonemic plementary distribution : allophones of t he same phoneme and they dont distinguish meaning but complementeach other in distribution. E.g. clear l and dark l respectivel

40、y in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.Some Rules in Phonologysequential rules: The rules to govern the

41、 combination of sounds in a particular language.assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Suprasegment

42、al Featuresstress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments-syllable, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress. Word Stress:The locati

43、on of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remainsunchanged. E.g. impott (n)import (v), record record (v)blackbird (compound)black bird (noncompound)The meaning-distinctive role played by word st

44、ress is also manifested in the combinations ofing forms and nouns.E.g.dining room(compound)sleeping baby (noncompound)Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V,

45、 Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my carHe drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a

46、 tone language. 3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language li

47、ke English. -four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tonewhat is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tonemake a question of what is said.The fall-rise toneindicate that there is an impli

48、ed message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: MorphologyOpen class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids c

49、onventionalbehaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to themfunction words.Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of w

50、ords and rules for word formation. Part Two: Morphemesthe minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g.ment.

51、free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the par

52、t of speech of a word. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.inflectional

53、morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. ed and ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurali

54、ty and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single word the noteworthy:

55、When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the

56、 compound.E.g. under take (v), inaction (n), uplift (v)It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. redcoat, greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings

57、of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabular

58、y of the English language.Part One: What is Syntax?Chapter 4: Syntaxsyntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: CategoriesWord-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items w

59、hich fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, P Word-level catego

60、riesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major