寫作與修辭contrastandcomparison的用法與比較課件

1、Development by Comparison and ContrastComparison and contrast are two thinking processes we constantly perform in our daily life. We might compare and contrast two cities, two products, two books, two plays or films, etc. although comparison usually indentifies similarities and contrast points out d

2、ifferences, the two are structurally similar and can be discussed together. The purpose of comparing or contrasting is to understand either of the two things more clearly and, at times, to make judgments about them.Subject-by-subject Pattern1. stress is caused by daily having to contend with crowds

3、of people and restricted space.2.Travel in rush hour can be a real headache.3. Pollution of various kinds is the result of industrialization. 4. Cars spew toxic fumes into the atmosphere. 5. Noise bellows out from every side.1. Here the pace of life is gentle.2. There is time to reflect on the beaut

4、y of the world.3. In a village,life is closer to nature.The changing seasons can be clearly observed. 4. Ther is ample space for everyone, and fresh air to breathe.Subject-by-subject PatternFor Americans a long time may be anything from forty years to forty minutes, depending on the circumstances. T

5、o an American businessman a proposal that could be completed within forty years might be too far into the future to be considered. A motorist who gets involved in a traffic accident would be in great trouble with the police if he waited twenty-four hours to report the accident. An hour would be too

6、long a time to be late for a business appointment or a date. Americans are so time-conscious that promptness is not only a virtue; it is an obligation. Subject-by-subject PatternBut many other cultures have no such concept of a long time. During W W II, a local truck driver arrived breathlessly at m

7、ilitary government headquarters report that a murderer was running loose in his village. Under question he told them the murder had occurred seventeen years earlier and that the murderer had remained unmolested in the village all the time. In a South American city, an American was asked to present i

8、mmediately his credentials to a local official and was kept waiting outside his office for almost two hours. For such people, promptness is not only unreasonable but also irritating. They often wonder why Americans make such a fuss about it. To a South Asian person, a long time may be 1,000years, or

9、 even forever. A. Americans concept of “a long time”: _. Examples: (1)_ (2)_ (3)_ Attitudes to promptness: _B. Other cultures concepts of “a long time”:_ Examples: (1)_ (2)_ (3)_SummaryIn subject-by-subject pattern, we discuss the two subjects separately, that is to say, we discuss all of the charac

10、teristics of subdivisions of the first subject in the first half and then present all the characteristics of the other in the second half. The aspects examined in the two subjects should be the same and in both parts, we should follow the same logical order for each subject. Point-by-point PatternLi

11、fe in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. However, life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual than that in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they have to go to one

12、of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but a suburban dweller must go into the city for entertainment.SummaryIn point-by-point

13、 pattern, the writer compares and contrasts both subjects item after item. He structures his paragraph around points of comparison instead of subjects, moving back and forth between the subjects. The specifics of both subjects are placed close together for direct and immediate comparison and contras

14、t, and transitions are often used so as to avoid abrupt switching between the two subjects. The point-by-point pattern works best with subjects that contain a lot of points. It can bring into sharp focus the similarities and differences for the reader to see as he reads along.A brief consideration o

15、f Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world; the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people. The Egyptian art

16、ists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares. The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture. The Greeks were preoccupied wit

17、h the visible world. They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them. The ancient statues of Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games. Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intellig

18、ence of actual human counterparts. They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.Linking devicesA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the othe

19、r. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world; the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people. A brief consideration of Egyptian mythology contrasted with the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from

20、one age to the other. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world, whereas the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people. Linking devicesThe Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifyi

21、ng nightmares. The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture. The Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.

22、The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity stands in opposition to this dark picture. Linking devicesThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world. They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them

23、. The ancient statues of Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games. The Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world. Unlike the Egyptians, They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them. The ancient statues o

24、f Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games. Linking devicesGenerally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts. They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.Gen

25、erally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts. In direct contrast to the Egyptians, They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.SummaryLinking words and phrases can indicate contrast and clarify the shift from one

26、side to the other. They play an important role in ensuring a smooth and coherent flow from one subject to another, or from one point to another in paragraphs. Development by Cause and EffectAt the end of the unit you will:Be able to recognize characteristics and organizational patterns of cause and

27、effect in paragraph writing;Be acquainted with relevant linking devices in cause and effect writing; andBe able to write effective paragraphs of cause and effect according to the instructions given“Cause and effect is regarded as a logical pattern commonly used in explanation and argumentation, espe

28、cially when we explore possible connections between an action/event and its outcome, or between causes and results of an event, action.Sample 1One of the main complaints of city residents in the US is the lack of parking. This problem is partly caused by all the abandoned cars on the streets. It has

29、 been estimated that over one million cars are abandoned on the streets of the cities. Each year, approximately a third of those cars are removed and destroyed. The rest of the cars which are not removed take up parking spaces and make neighbourhood look run-down. A survey shows thateven though the

30、city government of Los Angeles spends about 30 million dollars to tow away and dismantle abandoned vehicles, it is always fighting a losing battle as more and more cars are constantly coming off the producing line. In Boston, on the other hand, the problem has been dealt with by a non-profit governm

31、ental agency, which uses the money from the recycling of the mental in the cars to pay for the cost of towing them. The program in Boston sounds good although it has not completely reached financial independence from the federal government yet. Until a truly self-sufficient program for removing old

32、cars is developed, it will remain a serious problem.Questions1. What is the topic of the paragraph?2. What are the organizational characteristics of the paragraph?3. In what kind of order are the causes presented?This paragraph is developed around the problem of “the lack of parking” complained abou

33、t by US city residents.The paragraph is organised on a pattern of single effect and multiple causes. After the problem is clearly presented at the beginning, the rest of the paragraph is devoted to the exploration of its causes. Altogether three major causes are discussed, from the obvious fact of t

34、he abandoned cars taking up parking spaces to the underlying financial headaches. In this way, the writing shows a logical cause-and-effect pattern, which might consequently attract more concern or efforts in the problems solution.CausesOver a million cars are abandoned on the streets.More cars are

35、constantly being produced.Both city governments or governmental agencies have financial headaches.EffectLack of parking in citiesSummaryThe sample paragraph presents the problem of lack of parking in some of the US cities before it goes on to explore the causes of the issue. This pattern of organiza

36、tion is single effect vs. multiple causes. In this pattern, you may state the issue, i.e. the effect, right at the beginning, and then guide the reader to track down some important evidence for the causes. The causes can be traced from the most the most superficial to the deepest, From the most dire

37、ct to the most indirect, etc. In the end, it is advisable to suggest some solution to the problem, so that the whole writing has some significance. Sample 2Since the terrorists struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the Americans have been wondering how to respond to the frequent official w

38、arning that terrorists are planning new attacks in the near future. They feel anxious and panicky because they cant calculate the odds including those of explosives or letters with anthrax. But it is critical that the presidents aides avoid any temptation to use security precautions as an excuse for

39、 political errors, which was already made somewhere. There is, of course, the danger that too many warnings could become mere background noise, and that somewhere down the road the public would wind up ignoring the one that really matters. The public cannot judge on a day-to-day basis whether those

40、assessments are being made correctly. But the nation is better off frightened and informed than left happily in the dark. QuestionsWhat problem is addressed in this paragraph? And in how many aspects is the cause or effect explored?Does this paragraph come straight to the point of cause or effect ab

41、out the issue?Does it follow the same pattern as Sample 1? If not, what are the differences?1. The problem addressed refers to the issue of terrorist attacks. This issue has brought about at least three major aspects of consequence or effect.The paragraph addresses the cause rather than effects righ

42、t at the beginning. No. it follows a pattern of single cause and multiple effects. Unlike Sample 1 in which effect is addressed first and causes are traced backwards, Sample 2 states briefly at the beginning the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct issue, and then dwells on three major effects, so

43、me factual and some predicted.The terrorist strikes(Cause)The Americans feel very anxious and panicky.The government tends to make political errors.The public would wind up ignoring the one warning that really matters.Effect 1Effects 2Effects 3Summary You may have noticed the difference in organizat

44、ion between Sample 1 and Sample 2. In Sample 2 the writer briefly presents the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct cause, and then dwells upon three major effects, from the matter-of-fact to something predicted. This is called the single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern. As is observed, the writ

45、er structures his paragraph mainly around points of effects instead of causes, SummaryReasoning along the logical sequence of events. Like Sample 1, transitions are also used so as to avoid abrupt idea development. The single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern works best with issue that turn out to b

46、e far-reaching or influential. It can bring into sharp focus the relationship between causes and effects of an issue under discussion.Development by classificationIn life, we always find examples of classification and division. Food, drinks, clothes, animals, plants, people, teachers, books, etc. Ca

47、n all be classified in various ways for ease of understanding. In this unit, we are going to study the features and organization patterns of classification and the use of relevant linking devices.Sample 1The time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into three distinct phases. Phas

48、e One, often called the “No problem” phase, runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before the dreaded exam is passed out. During Phase One, the student is carefree, smiling and enjoying life as usual. When asked by classmates if he has studied for the test yet, hi

49、s reply will be an assured “No problem”. During Phase One, no actual studying takes place. Phase Two is entered two days prior to the test. It is sometimes referred to as the “Tomorrow” phase, since students often reply to questions with the statement, “Ill study tomorrow.” During Phase Two, again,

50、no actual studying takes place, but he is considering it. Phase Three, the final phase, is entered twelve hours before “Zero Hour.” This is the actual phase, characterized by sweaty palms, nervous twitches(抽筋), and confused mental pattern. Phase Three is also termed the “Shock” phase since the stude

51、nts is shocked to discover the imminent nature of the exam and the amount of material to be studied. He will probably be unable to sleep and will mumble meaningless phrases. This phase will not end until the exam is over. Complete the outline according to the organization of Sample 1Subject: the tim

52、e most students spend studying for a test Topic sentence: The time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into three distinct phases. Division1)Phase One runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before the exam is passed out. 2)Phase two is entered t

53、wo days prior to the test. 3)Phase three ,the final phase ,is entered twelve hours before “Zero Hour.Sample 2Students in our school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports. Many students go to the playground when they feel tired after a few hours of st

54、udy. These students put much more emphasis on their study efficiency than on the fun of sports. They just want to go back to their classrooms from the playground with clearer ad quicker mind. Thus they dont actually care whether they can enjoy themselves on the sports ground or not. Students that ma

55、ke up the second group are real sports lovers. Sometimes they even put aside their study for a game. They take part in the sport that interests them most, no caring whether it is most beneficial to their health. Sample 2The third group want s beauty from sports. Boys want to become strong; girls wan

56、t to be slim and graceful. Those who consider sports the only way of reducing weight also belong to this group. They are very carefully choosing the kind of exercise they do, and they are afraid that certain sports may ruin their figures. No matter which group they belong to, they all benefit form s

57、ports.QuestionsWhat is the topic sentence? What is the subject classified? How many groups has it been divided into?Are the groups arranged in the same order as in Sample 1? If not, in what order are they arranged?AnswersIn Sample 1 groups are arranged in time order; while in Sample 2, groups are ar

58、ranged in the order of degree, i.e. from the less specific and strong intention to more specific and stronger ones. outlineTopic sentence: students in our school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports. Division :1) students who go to the playground wh

59、en they feel tired after study. 2) real sports lovers who even put aside their studies for a game. 3) students who want beauty from sportsConcluding sentence: No matter which group they belong to, they all benefit form sports.SummaryA paragraph of classification usually consists of a topic sentence,

60、 a body, and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence has a clar subject and indicates the number of categories into which you are going to classify the subject. The body explains each category one by one in a logical order. It may be the order of time sequence, or from the less specific to the mor