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1、英語語法動詞的時和體時間、時和動詞什么是現(xiàn)在?什么是過去?什么是將來?參照層次上現(xiàn)在時刻現(xiàn)在過去將來ButHow do you explain the following sentence?Paris stands on the River Seine(塞納河).語義上現(xiàn)在過去時間(早于現(xiàn)在)將來時間(晚于現(xiàn)在)現(xiàn)在時間(包括現(xiàn)在)在語義層次上“現(xiàn)在”是最具有普遍性和最不明確的類目。Albatrosses(信天翁)are large birds.Albatrosses were large birds.例1是一種泛泛而談,時間是適用于現(xiàn)在、過去和將來。例2則是一個有限制的說法,暗示信天翁已經(jīng)絕

2、種了。例2的作者對于所描寫事物過去的狀態(tài)是否延續(xù)至今,沒有表示他的態(tài)度。例如John spends a lot of money. (過去、現(xiàn)在和將來都如此)John spent a lot of money. (只有過去如此)語法意義上在形態(tài)上,英語動詞除了現(xiàn)在和過去形式之外,沒有將來形式?,F(xiàn)在時不僅可以表示現(xiàn)在時間,也可以用來表示將來時間。(當然還有另外表示將來時間的結(jié)構(gòu))Today is Monday.Tomorrow is Tuesday.What are you doing today?What are you doing tomorrow?因此現(xiàn)在時也被稱為“非過去”時。過去、現(xiàn)在

3、和將來在語義上的三種組合在語法上被不平均地分為過去和非過去兩個類目。靜態(tài)與動態(tài)動詞的意思同一事件有時既可以用一個動詞來說,也可以用一個抽象名詞來表達。Mary hoped for success.表示a past hope of MaryPeter knows a great deal.表示Peters present knowledgeThe home team will be defeated.表示a future defeat of the home team按照名詞與動詞之間的類比,關(guān)于某一事件的抽象名詞也可以劃分單數(shù)和復數(shù),相應(yīng)的動詞也可以通過使用頻率狀語而“復數(shù)化”。單一事件Ves

4、uvius (維蘇威火山) erupted in 77 AD.= In 77 AD. there was an eruption of Vesuvius. 眾多事件The country was invaded many times. = There were many Invasions of the country.諸如erupt和invade的動詞可與可數(shù)名詞相比。當這類動詞用于現(xiàn)在完成體中,它們不能表示某個單一的不間斷地延續(xù)至今的狀態(tài)。I have known the Penfolds all my life.I have driven sports cars for years.像b

5、e,have和know這一類表示狀態(tài)的動詞表示的是一種不間斷的狀態(tài)。這類動詞很少和頻率狀語一起出現(xiàn)。The chair has beautiful carved legs quite frequently.單一事件Vesuvius (維蘇威火山) erupted in 77 AD.= In 77 AD. there was an eruption of Vesuvius. 眾多事件The country was invaded many times. = There were many Invasions of the country.要注意的是,這里講的是動態(tài)和靜態(tài)的意義,而不是動態(tài)和靜態(tài)動

6、詞。因為一個動詞可能既有動態(tài)意義也有靜態(tài)意義。例如:當have作為possess的意思時它是靜態(tài)的,而當作為eat的意思時,它又是動態(tài)的。We have dinner at Maxims quite frequently.動態(tài)動詞意義的特征之一是它們常常暗指施事,即暗指有關(guān)動作的主動的施事者。因此動態(tài)動詞的意義能夠出現(xiàn)在祈使句,而靜態(tài)意義則不行。Learn how to swim.Know how to swim.一般現(xiàn)在時the simple present tense狀態(tài)現(xiàn)在時(the state present):它包括了普遍的無時間性的陳述,或所謂“永恒真理”。Honesty is t

7、he best policy.Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.Two and three make five.The Nile is the longest river in Africa.除了這類諺語、科學、數(shù)學論斷或地理上的陳述體現(xiàn)了最大的時間普遍性,下列句子也可以包括在狀態(tài)現(xiàn)在時,盡管這些狀態(tài)的時間跨度在或大或小的程度上是受到限制的:Margaret is tall.He does not believe in hard work.We live near Toronto.習慣現(xiàn)在時(the habitual present)習慣現(xiàn)在時是指動詞

8、在一定期間內(nèi)重復發(fā)生的一系列事件。We go to Brussels every year.Bill drinks heavily.She makes her own dresses.習慣現(xiàn)在時的一個特點是:它可以輕易地加上一個頻率狀語來明確重復的頻率,如every night, seldom等。瞬間現(xiàn)在時(the instantaneous present)習慣現(xiàn)在時是具有動態(tài)動詞意義的一般現(xiàn)在時中最普通的時態(tài)。如果動詞指的是一個大致在講話時開始并結(jié)束的單一行為,那就是瞬間現(xiàn)在時了。因為瞬間現(xiàn)在時意味著事件很少或沒有持續(xù)性,它只出現(xiàn)在某些較受限制的情景中。這些情景包括下列幾種:評論Black

9、 passes the ball to LeoLeo shoots!動作演示及其他自我評論:I pick up the fruit with a skewer, dip it into the batter, and lower it into the hot fat.I enclose herewith a form of application特殊感嘆句(以狀語開頭)Here comes the winner! Up you go.行為語 (描述說話方式的動詞)I advise you to withdraw. I apologize. We thank you for your rece

10、nt inquiry.涉及現(xiàn)在時間的一般現(xiàn)在時的三種主要用法現(xiàn)在狀態(tài)現(xiàn)在時習慣現(xiàn)在時瞬間現(xiàn)在時現(xiàn)在時表示非現(xiàn)在時間的特殊用法表示過去的一般現(xiàn)在時歷史現(xiàn)在時是常見的敘事文體特征。歷史現(xiàn)在時描寫仿佛現(xiàn)在正在發(fā)生的過去,因為它傳達了目擊者的敘述的某種具有戲劇色彩的即時性。涉及過去時間的現(xiàn)在時用于交際動詞時,其用法是非常特殊的:The ten oclock news says that theres going to be a bad storm.Martin tells me the Smiths are moving from No. 20.I hear that poor Mr. Simpson

11、 has gone into hospital.這一類動詞還包括諸如understand, hear和learn等。這些句子如果使用一般過去時或現(xiàn)在完成體也是可以的;但現(xiàn)在時意味著:盡管交際事件發(fā)生在過去,但它的結(jié)果傳播的信息還在發(fā)生作用。所以,下面這句話也可以用現(xiàn)在時The Book of Genesis speaks of the terrible fate of Sodom (索多瑪,罪惡之城) and Gomorrah (俄摩拉城,罪惡之都).這句話表示,盡管創(chuàng)世紀成書于幾千年之前,它現(xiàn)在仍然向我們“講述”著。過去的事物仍能活躍在現(xiàn)在的概念還解釋了,為什么在有關(guān)作家、作曲家、藝術(shù)家等以

12、及他們現(xiàn)存作品的句子中,也可以選用現(xiàn)在時:In The Brothers Karamazov(卡拉馬佐夫兄弟), Dostoevsky (陀思妥耶夫斯基)draws/drew his characters from sources deep in the Russian soil.Like Rubens(魯賓斯), Watteau(華托) is/was able to convey an impression of warm, living flesh by the merest whiff of colour.表示將來的一般現(xiàn)在時在主句中,指將來的一般現(xiàn)在時總伴有時間狀語,用以表示事件是預(yù)先

13、就確定和不能更改的,而且其確定程度猶如它正在現(xiàn)在發(fā)生一樣。The plane leaves for Ankara at eight oclock tonight.在從句中,尤其在條件和時間分句中,一般現(xiàn)在時用于表示將來則更為常見。Hell do it if you pay him.Ill let you know as soon as I hear from her.小說敘事中的一般現(xiàn)在時歷史現(xiàn)在時和用于小說敘事中的一般現(xiàn)在時之間,有著密切的聯(lián)系。唯一的差別就是,用歷史現(xiàn)在時的方式敘述的事件是真實的,而用小說的“歷史現(xiàn)在時”所敘述的事件是虛構(gòu)的:The crowd swarms around

14、the gateway, and seethes with delighted anticipation; excitement grows, as suddenly their hero makes his entrance 在文體上,這和講故事時通常使用過去時態(tài)的傳統(tǒng)做法形成明顯的對比。在舞臺指導說明中使用現(xiàn)在時是一個特殊的例外:Mallinson enters. The girls immediately pretend to be working hard. William assumes a businesslike air, picks up two folders at rand

15、om, and makes for the door.這里,傳統(tǒng)上使用現(xiàn)在時,似乎是為了表明,在我們閱讀劇本時,劇中的事件正在演出。概括敘述中,也采用類似的傳統(tǒng)方法。P125表示過去時間的過去時的意義過去時在它最常見的用法中,把下面兩種意義的特征結(jié)合起來:事件/狀態(tài)必定發(fā)生在過去,從其完成到現(xiàn)在之間有一段間隔。講話者或作者一定了解事件/狀態(tài)發(fā)生的確切時間。動詞短語中過去時的確定過去(Definite Past)時間的意義,相當于名詞短語中的定冠詞。就確定意義而言,現(xiàn)在時與過去時與指示詞this和that的“指近”和“指遠”意義之間,也可以找到某種平行關(guān)系。過去時的情景用法Did you loc

16、k the front door?Did you lock the front door at bedtime?通過較廣泛的情景(或一般知識)所得到的確定性,可以用來解釋以人、地點或事物為話題的歷史或傳記性的陳述中一般過去時的用法:Byron died in Greece.I have a friend who was at school with Kissinger.This picture was painted by the owners grandfather.Rome was not built in a day.過去時的前指和后指用法當過去時所指的過去時間已由先前使用的過去時所表示

17、時,我們可稱之為“前指”。Then we entered the citythe square was deserted在其他情況下,先前使用的非確定過去意義上的現(xiàn)在完成體,可以說是提供了一個以后出現(xiàn)的過去時的前提:They have decided to close down the factory. It took us completely by surprise.There have been times when I wished myself safely home in bed.在其他情況下,前指涉及的是同一分句中的時間狀語:Last Saturday, we went to t

18、he theatre.當時間狀語放在過去時后面時,可稱之為確定過去的后指用法:We went to the theatre last Saturday.對于動詞短語的“確定”,相關(guān)的時間不必說明,要緊的只是在原則上時間應(yīng)該是可以具體說明的。過去的事件、狀態(tài)和習慣與現(xiàn)在時的三種意義相對應(yīng),過去時也有三種意義,包括事件過去時,狀態(tài)過去時和習慣過去時。T2 那時T1 現(xiàn)在事件過去時狀態(tài)過去時習慣過去時事件過去時(the event past):指過去的一個單一確定事件The eruption of Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii.狀態(tài)過去時(the state past)Arc

19、hery was a popular sport for the Victorians.習慣過去時(the habitual past)In ancient times, the Olympic Games were held at Olympia in Southern Greece.In those days we used to live in the country.We used to get up at 5 a.m. every morning all through the summer.She addressed and posted the letter.She dislik

20、ed and distrusted her advisers.事件過去時與狀態(tài)過去時和習慣過去時的區(qū)別之一是后兩者能改寫成used to,另外一個可供區(qū)別的標志是,當動態(tài)動詞出現(xiàn)在話語的順序中,它們就具有要求按順序先后解釋的傾向。表示現(xiàn)在和將來時間的過去時的意義在間接引語中,轉(zhuǎn)述動詞用過去時常常要求從屬分句中的動詞也采用過去時。A: Did you say you have/had no money?B: Yes, Im completely broke.A: How did you know that I am/was Max Wilson?B: Well, I remembered tha

21、t you are/were tall, and wear/wore glasses.2. 態(tài)度過去時(the attitudinal past)使用表示意愿及精神狀態(tài)的動詞,反映的是講話者探詢式的態(tài)度,而不是過去時間。在下列成對的句子中,現(xiàn)在時和過去時都指現(xiàn)在的精神狀態(tài),但后者更為禮貌:Do/ Did you want to see me now?I wonder/wondered if you could help us.3. 假設(shè)過去時(the hypothetical past)用于某些從屬分句,尤其是if-分句中,表示和講話人的信念或期待相反的意思。If you really wor

22、ked hard, you would soon get promoted.Its time we all took a rest.I wish I had a memory like yours.完成體和進行體體(aspect)這個術(shù)語指的是一種語法類目,它反映在時間意義上看待或經(jīng)歷動詞動作的方式。它不和表述時間相關(guān),但在意義上體與時態(tài)的關(guān)系很密切。時態(tài)體現(xiàn)在詞法上,體體現(xiàn)在句法上。完成體和進行體可以簡單地看成是:視為完整(完成)的動作,和視為不完整的,即在進行中(未完成或進行中)的動作。符號名稱例句類型B現(xiàn)在完成體過去完成體He has examined.He had examined.類

23、型C現(xiàn)在進行體過去進行體He is examining.He was examining.類型BC現(xiàn)在完成進行體過去完成進行體He has been examining.He had been examining.進行體(the progressive aspect)表示在某個特定時間正在進行的事情。Joan sings well.Joan is singing well.例1指的是Joan作為一名歌唱家的能力;例2是指她在某一特定場合或在某一特定演出季節(jié)的表演。Joan sang well.Joan was singing well.例1用的一般過去時使我們將事件看作一個整體;而過去進行時則

24、使我們將它看作一項正在進行的活動,是持續(xù)了一段時間的。I read a novel yesterday evening.I was reading a novel yesterday evening.例1指我昨晚看完了整部小說;例2指暗示我還沒有看完。進行體的意義可以分為三個成分,具體的例子不必包含每一個成分:事件具有持續(xù)性事件具有有限持續(xù)性事件不一定完整進行體表示的狀態(tài)、事件和習慣狀態(tài)進行體:在許多情況下,進行體不能用于狀態(tài)動詞。We own a house in the country.當確實出現(xiàn)進行體的場合,人們的感覺是,它意味著短暫性而不是永久性:We are living in th

25、e country. 短暫居住We live in the country. 永久居住(b) 事件進行體表達的概念是,事件是持續(xù)的,而且尚未結(jié)束。The referee blows his whistle.The referee is blowing his whistle.The train was approaching.例1和例2都可能出現(xiàn)在足球比賽的實況廣播報道中,但是例1可能表示一聲短促的哨聲,例2則可能表示持續(xù)的或一聲接一聲的哨聲。現(xiàn)在進行體表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)在事件比一般現(xiàn)在是更為普通,因為它具有一般用于表示此類事件的持續(xù)含義。A: What is Mary doing at this mom

26、ent?B: She is watching television.(c) 習慣進行體:進行體與習慣意義相結(jié)合意味著重復的動作發(fā)生于某一有限的時期中:The professor types his own letters. 永久習慣性The professor is typing his own letters while his secretary is ill. 短暫習慣性At that time she was having regular singing lessons.在相對少見的情況中,進行體同習慣意義一起,表示一系列事件中的每一事件都具有持續(xù)性/不完整性:Whenever I s

27、ee her, shes working in the garden.The Chief Secretary rises at 6:15 every morning. By 7 oclock he has taken a light breakfast, and is already reading the morning newspapers.Remember that when youre taking a rest, someone else is always working.進行體和always,continually或forever相結(jié)合就喪失了它“短暫”的語義成分。Bill is

28、 continually/always/forever working late at the office.這些例子中的進行體往往表達主觀上對于所描述行為的不以為然。因而在上例中說話人似乎在暗示,在辦公室工作到很晚是一種令人惱怒或可悲的習慣。在使用了forever之后,這種暗示顯得更加強烈。在其他情況中,可能就沒有這種貶抑的含義。A child is always learning.完成體John lived in Pairs for ten years.John has lived in Paris for ten years.Where did you put my purse?Wher

29、e have you put my purse?這兩個句子都表示現(xiàn)在時刻以前的一種狀態(tài),但是一般過去時表示居住期已告一段落,而現(xiàn)在完成體則表示居住期一直持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在時間(甚至可能繼續(xù)至將來)。所以現(xiàn)在完成體表示“和當前相關(guān)”的過去時間。完成體最廣義的解釋是,它表示先時時間(anterior time),即先于由時態(tài)或者句子其他成分或其語境所表明的任何時間指向的時間。T?T=指向時間I have already met your sister.T1=現(xiàn)在The flight was cancelled after we had paid for the tickets.T2=過去By next w

30、eek, they will have completed their contract.T1=現(xiàn)在T2將來的過去I am sorry to have missed the concert. I am sorry that I missed the concert.She regrets having abandoned the plan.She regrets that she abandoned the plan.現(xiàn)在完成體現(xiàn)在完成體的意義That house has been empty for ages.Have you known my sister for long?延續(xù)至今的狀態(tài)

31、。它對應(yīng)一般過去時的“狀態(tài)過去時”用法,但又與后者有別,它指明狀態(tài)至少繼續(xù)到現(xiàn)在時刻,比較:That house was empty for agesbut now it has been sold.Have you (ever) been to Florence?All our children have had measles(麻疹).延續(xù)至今的一個時期中不確定的事件。它對應(yīng)于“事件過去時”,但不同的是后者的時間是確定的。試比較Did you go to Florence (last summer)?Mr. Terry has sung in this choir ever since h

32、e was a boy.The province has suffered from disastrous floods throughout its history.延續(xù)至今的一個時期中的習慣(即重復事件)。它對應(yīng)“習慣過去時”,但其中說明的那個時期必須延續(xù)至今。請比較:The journal has been published every month since 1850.The journal was published every month from 1850 to 1888.T1狀態(tài)意義事件意義習慣意義非限定過去意義的變體涉及過去的某一個單一事件時,現(xiàn)在完成體與三種意義或內(nèi)涵相關(guān)

33、:有關(guān)的時間區(qū)延續(xù)至今;事件發(fā)生在新近;動作的結(jié)果在現(xiàn)在時刻仍然存在。選擇現(xiàn)在完成時或一般過去時,常常取決于講話人頭腦中是否有一個尚未結(jié)束的隱含時間區(qū)。Have you seen the Javanese Art Exhibition?Did you see the Javanese Art Exhibition?還在展出曾在此展出Have you heard the news? The president has resigned.Did you hear the news? The president has resigned.一般現(xiàn)在完成體經(jīng)常用于報道一則新聞。A: Has the po

34、stman left any letters?B: Yes, he did six months ago.B的回答顯得很荒唐,因為A問題的隱含時間區(qū)應(yīng)該不超過一天。有recently,just的意思。The apples have all been eaten.My mother has recovered from her illness.Have any of the visitors arrived?一只蘋果也沒有剩下。我母親現(xiàn)在身體好了。是否有來訪者在這兒?一般過去時和現(xiàn)在完成體中狀語的用法選擇一般過去時還是現(xiàn)在完成時,與時間指向有關(guān),因此也與時間狀語的選擇和解釋有關(guān)。與過去時相關(guān)的狀

35、語:I saw her yesterday (evening)/a week ago/earlier this week/last Monday/the other day/at four oclock/in the morning/on Tuesday.(b) 與現(xiàn)在完成體相關(guān)的狀語I havent seen her up to now/ since Monday/since I met you/so far.(c) 與兩者都相關(guān)的狀語I saw her today/this month/this year/recently/before/this June/once/already.I h

36、ave seen her today/this month/this year/recently/before/this June/once/already.過去完成體No wonder Miss Matthews French was excellent she had lived in Paris since childhood.When we bought it, the house had been empty for several years.過去完成體一般的意思是指“過去的過去”,并且可以看作是現(xiàn)在完成體或一般過去時的先時形式。過去完成體表示的是先于過去某一指向時間的任何事件或狀

37、態(tài)。它的三種意義,即“狀態(tài)”、“事件”或“習慣”都可能出現(xiàn)。The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and couldnt play.It was foolish to fire McCabe: in two seasons, he had scored more goals than any other player.T2=那時T1=現(xiàn)在一般過去時和現(xiàn)在完成體用過去完成體變換成“過去的過去”,這兩者之間的對比就消失了。My aunt had lived in Italy for four years.My aunt lived in Italy for fou

38、r years.My aunt has lived in Italy for four years.過去完成體不一定指比一般過去時所指更為遙遠的時間。在有些情況下,尤其在after引導的分句中,這兩種結(jié)構(gòu)大致可以互換:I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping.I ate my lunch after Sandra came back from her shopping.完成進行體完成體和進行體同時用于一個動詞短語中,它們各自有關(guān)的意義特征也結(jié)合起來了。在與進行體主要意義相關(guān)的三個特征,即持續(xù)性,有限持續(xù)性和可能不完整

39、性中,前兩種特征賦予完成進行體一種“短暫”的意思。Ive been writing a letter to my nephew.How have you been getting on?Its been snowing again.這些句子的完成進行體可同一般完成體表示延續(xù)至今的狀態(tài)的用法相比,表示延續(xù)至今的短暫情景?!坝邢蕹掷m(xù)性”的因素使完成進行體難以用于瞬息動詞。He has been starting his car.He has been starting his book.第二句話是無意義的,除非把它理解為“他一直在試圖、打算動手寫他的書?!碑斖瓿蛇M行體和成就及過程謂語連用時,不完整可能性的特征就明顯了。即使擦窗的工作還沒有結(jié)束,也能使用完成進行體。Have you cleaned the windows?No, I havent finished them yet.Have you been cleaning the windows?Yes, but I havent finished them yet.Ive written a novel, but I havent finishe

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