《新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》1-6章期末復(fù)習(xí)

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Chapter one Introduction1.1什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)1.1.1定義語(yǔ)言學(xué)Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支 必考P2普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which a

2、re used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位學(xué)）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學(xué)）The study of how morphemes and words are combined

3、to form sentences is called syntax（句法學(xué)）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （語(yǔ)義學(xué)）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語(yǔ)用學(xué)）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成對(duì)的概念辨析差異 必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫If a linguistic study describes and

4、analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern

5、linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.規(guī)定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性Descriptive A linguistic study

6、describes and analyzes the language people actually use. （2）Synchronic and diachronic 共時(shí)和歷時(shí)The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more import

7、ant.歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. （3）Speech and writ

8、ing 口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ)Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the

9、 spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. （4）Langue and parole 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ) 必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract lin

10、guistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to disc

11、over the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.語(yǔ)言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 言語(yǔ)parole （具體）The realization of langue in actual use. （5）Competence and performance 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Proposed

12、 by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rule

13、s.語(yǔ)言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用performance （具體）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語(yǔ)言交際中的具體體現(xiàn)。 （6） Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法和現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)法It is generally believed

14、 that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of Fde Saussure s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. Before that is traditional grammar.Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditio

15、nal grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authent

16、ic and mainly spoken language date.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的，其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性的，研究高級(jí)書面語(yǔ)。 )1.2什么是語(yǔ)言1.2.1 定義語(yǔ)言language：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 語(yǔ)言是人類用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。 1.2.2 D

17、esign features of language 必考P8It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多產(chǎn)性 （創(chuàng)造性） Duality雙重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化傳遞arbitrariness There is no log

18、ical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Language is a system, w

19、hich consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language

20、 system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 1.2.3 Functions of language 語(yǔ)言的功能Descriptive function, expressive function, social functionSix elements of a speech event specified

21、 by Jakobson:Addresser - Emotive 感情功能Addressee - Conative 意動(dòng)功能Context - Referential 所指功能Message - Poetic 詩(shī)歌功能Contact - Phatic communion 寒暄功能Code - Metalinguistic 無(wú)語(yǔ)言功能Chapter Two Phonology2.2 Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）2.2.1定義Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sou

22、nds that occur in the worlds languages.是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音2.2.2 Organs of speech3個(gè)區(qū)域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔-the throat，the oral cavity口腔-the mouth，nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds p

23、roduced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 濁音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 2.2.3寬式音標(biāo)和嚴(yán)式音標(biāo)寬式音標(biāo)Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 嚴(yán)式音標(biāo)Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sou

24、nd with letters symbols and the diacritics. 送氣Aspirated不送氣Unaspirated2.2.4Classification of English speech sounds英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類Vowel and consonant元音輔音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction ar

25、e called vowels. Classification of English consonants a: in terms of the manners of articulation(發(fā)音方式): Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6 Fricatives(摩擦音): /f/ /v/ / / /s/ /z/ / / h/ /r/ 8 Affricatives(塞擦音): /t/ /d/ Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/ Nasals(鼻音): /m,n,/ Glides(滑音): /w j/ b: in terms of place of articulation(發(fā)

26、音部位) bilabials(雙唇音): /p b m w/ labiodentals(唇齒音): /f v/ dentals(齒音): / alveolars(齒齦音): /t d n l r s/ 6 palatals(腭音): /j t d / 5 velars(軟腭音): /k g/ glottal(喉音): /h/ Classification of English vowels a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back, b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-c

27、losed semi-open and open. c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short2.3Phonplogy音位學(xué)2.3.2Phone, phoneme and allophone音素Phonea phonetic unit or segment. 音位Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. 音位變體Allophon

28、esDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 2.3.4 explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule . 序列規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The as

29、similation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion ruleIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.2.3.5 Suprasegmental features超音段特征重音 Stre

30、ss聲調(diào) ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.語(yǔ)調(diào) IntonationChapter Three Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)3.2 Open class and closed classOpen class words 實(shí)詞，詞數(shù)可增加Closed class words 虛詞，詞數(shù)穩(wěn)定3.3 Morphemes 詞素詞素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology

31、 and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 自由詞素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 黏著詞素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words tha

32、t can be used independently. 3.4詞根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 詞綴Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 3.5 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生Deriv

33、ational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of wordsE.g. modern-modernize length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.曲折Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they

34、 never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,E.g. a) Number: tables apples cars b) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) Case: John/Johns派生詞 Derivation復(fù)合詞 CompoundsChapter Four Syntax 句法學(xué)句法學(xué)Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are comb

35、ined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.（句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支）Phrase categories and their structures短語(yǔ)分類與結(jié)構(gòu)Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N),

36、verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead（中心語(yǔ)）- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（標(biāo)志成分）- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（補(bǔ)足成分）- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure r

37、ules:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det限定詞) + N + (PP)e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual修飾詞) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg程度詞) + A +

38、(PP)very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationSNP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.句法類型Syntactic c

39、ategory A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary synta

40、ctic movement. 普遍語(yǔ)法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. NP the student who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP()有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語(yǔ)，名詞是核心詞，

41、子句是補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)。4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformations 位移和轉(zhuǎn)換的限制 必考（定義和作用）This general rule is referred to as Move , where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.（我也不知道作用是啥，就會(huì)用）這章重點(diǎn)就是畫圖Chapter 5 Semantics 語(yǔ)義學(xué)Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguisti

42、c point of view （對(duì)意義的研究）同義詞Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 多義詞Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 同音(形)異義Homo

43、nymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下義關(guān)系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more gene

44、ral in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 反義詞Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 預(yù)設(shè)Presupposition Its a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 蘊(yùn)涵Entailment Entailment can be illustrat

45、ed by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.句子間的意義關(guān)系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y. 互為同義、同對(duì)錯(cuò)X entails Y. 包含關(guān)系-X包含YX presupposes Y. 假設(shè)、推測(cè) 由X推測(cè)出YX is a contradiction. 矛盾句X is semantically

46、anomalous. 不等邏輯、錯(cuò)誤邏輯5.2.3 Contextualism 語(yǔ)境論 必考，考啥未知P64自己看書5.5.1 Componential analysis語(yǔ)義成分分析Componential analysisComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structure semanticists（結(jié)構(gòu)語(yǔ)義學(xué)）to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into

47、 meaning components, called semantic features（語(yǔ)義特征）.述謂分析 Predication analysisA way to analyze sentence meaning.主項(xiàng)（論元）argument+ （謂詞）predicateEg. (The dogs)主項(xiàng) (barks)謂詞.帶一個(gè)主項(xiàng)的述謂 one-place predicationChapter 6 pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué)Pragmatics 必考The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect su

48、ccessful communication.The study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.Pragmatics=semantics+context語(yǔ)境ContextIt is generally considerd as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.語(yǔ)句意義與話語(yǔ)意義Sentence meaning

49、 V.S utterance meaningIf we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Utterance is based on sen

50、tence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.6.2言語(yǔ)行為理論Speech act theory 必考P80Its an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communicatio

51、n. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act（言內(nèi)行為）, the illocutionary act（言外行為）, the perlocutionary act（言后行為）and the categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 言內(nèi)行為L(zhǎng)ocutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 言外行為Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performed i