廣東藥學(xué)院教師課堂教學(xué)講稿系統(tǒng)解剖學(xué)英文

1、廣東藥學(xué)院教師課堂教學(xué)講稿課程系統(tǒng)解剖學(xué)專業(yè)臨床醫(yī)學(xué)、預(yù)防醫(yī)學(xué)教師曾明輝班級雙語班Introduction of Human Anatomy人體解剖學(xué)緒論1.What is human anatomy?Human anatomy(人體解剖學(xué)) is the subject which studies the shape, structure and spatial interrelations of organs of normal human body. Human anatomy is an important basic course of medicine. 2.Classificat

2、ion of human anatomy:Human anatomy is generally classified into gross anatomy (大體解剖學(xué)), microscopic anatomy (顯微解剖學(xué), histology), developmental anatomy (成長解剖學(xué)), radiographic anatomy (放射解剖學(xué)) and clinical anatomy (臨床解剖學(xué)) etc. Gross anatomy is subdivided into systematic anatomy(系統(tǒng)解剖學(xué)) and regional anatomy

3、 (局部解剖學(xué)). Systematic anatomy takes the systems of human body (such as locomotor system, alimentary system etc.) as study units and studies the shape and structures of the organs of the body system by system.There are nine systems in human body: (1) locomotor system(運動系統(tǒng)),(2) alimentary(digestive) sy

4、stem (消化系統(tǒng)), (3) respiratory system (呼吸系統(tǒng)), (4) urinary system (泌尿系統(tǒng)),(5) Reproductive (genital) system (生殖系統(tǒng)),(6) endocrine system(內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)), (7) circulatory system(循環(huán)系統(tǒng), angiology), (8) nervous system(神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)), (9) sensory organs(感覺器官).Regional anatomy takes regions(such as inguinal region etc.) or area

5、s as study units and studies the shape and spatial interrelations of the organs or structures of the body region by region.3. The parts of human body The human body is divided into the trunk, head, neck, upper limbs and lower limbs. The upper and lower parts of anterior aspect of trunk is respective

6、ly called thorak and abdomen, while the upper and lower parts of posteior aspect of trunk is respectively called back and lumbar. The posterior part of neck is called nucha. The upper limb is divided into shoulder, arm, forearm and hand, the upper limb is divided into gluteus, thigh, leg and foot.4.

7、The anatomical terms used often:(1) Anatomical position (解剖姿勢)：The body stands up erectly; The face is directed forward, the eyes see forward horizontally; The heels and toes are closed together, the tips of feet are directed forward; The upper limbs hang by the sides of the body; The palms of the h

8、ands face forward. (2)The relational planes: Sagittal plane（矢狀切面）:It is the plane that passes through the body vertical to its anterior surface and divides the body into left and right parts. The median sagittal plane(正中矢狀切面) : It is the plane that passes through the midline of the body and divides

9、the body into symmetrical left and right parts. Coronal(frontal ) plane 冠狀面(額狀面):It is the plane that passes through the body vertical to the sagittal plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. Horizontal(transverse) plane 水平面(橫切面): It the plane that passes through the body vertic

10、al to both sigittal and coronal planes and divides the body into superior and inferior parts. Transverse and longitudinalplanes for one organ: transverse plane(橫切面): It is the plane that is vertical to long axis of the organ.longitudinal plane (縱切面):It is the plane that parallels to long axis of the

11、 organ.(3)Anatomical directions: Anterior (ventral) 前(腹側(cè)): It means nearer the front surface of the body. Posterior ( dorsal ) 后(背側(cè)) : It means nearer the back surface of the body. Superior (上): It means nearer the top of the head or upper part of a structure or the body. Inferior (下):It means neare

12、r the soles of the feet or the lower part of a structure or the body.Sometimes in the trunk, cranial (顱側(cè)) is used instead of superior, and caudal (尾側(cè)) instead of inferior. Medial (內(nèi)側(cè)): It means nearer to the median sagittal plane. Lateral (外側(cè)): It means farther from the median sagittal plane. Intern

13、al (內(nèi)): It means nearer to the center of a hollow organ or body cavity. external (外): It means farther from the center of a hollow organ or body cavity.Superficial (淺): It means nearer to the surface of the body. deep (深): It means farther from the surface of the body. Proximal(近側(cè)) is used to indica

14、te nearer to the root or attached end of a limb. Distal (遠(yuǎn)側(cè)) is used to indicate farther from the root or attached end of a limb. (4) The axis of the body: The sagittal axis(矢狀軸): It is the axis that passes anteroposteriorly through the body and is vertical to its anterior surface, and parallel to s

15、agittal plane. The coronal axis (冠狀軸): It is the axis that passes right-left through the body vertical to the sagittal axis, and parallel to coronal plane. The vertical axis (垂直軸): It is the axis that passes through the body vertical to the earth surface, and vertical to the coronal axis and the sag

16、ittal axis. PartThe Locomotor System 運動系統(tǒng)The locomotor system includes three parts: bones(骨), joints(關(guān)節(jié)) and muscles(肌肉). The individual bones of the body are linked together by joints to form the skeleton(骨骼).The functions of locomotor system include: to provide a framework for the body; movement;

17、to protect important organs such as brain, heart, lungs, and liver etc.; to be a storehouse of minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus etc.;to form blood cells. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and extend across joints. When contracting, they exert force on the bones and cause movements. Chapter

18、. Osteology骨學(xué)Section . The General Description of Osteology骨學(xué)總論 There are 206 bones in adult (including the six auditory ossicles 聽小骨). Each bone is an organ. Bone is hard and resilient. It possesses the ability of repairing(修復(fù)), regeneration (再生) and reconstruction (重建). The bones of human body can

19、 be divided into the skull(顱骨), the bones of the trunk (軀干骨) and the appendicular bones (附肢骨). 1. The Shape and Classification of Bones According to their shape, the bones are classified into four types: long bones(長骨), short bones(短骨), flat bones (扁骨) and irregular bones(不規(guī)則骨). shape of bonelong bo

20、nes(長骨)short bones(短骨)flat bones (扁骨)irregular bones(不規(guī)則骨)(1) The long bones Long bones are found in limbs. Each of them consists of a shaft(干) or body and two ends or extremities(端). The part between the shaft and end is called metaphysis (干骺端).There is a cavity in the inner of the shaft, known as

21、medullary cavity(骨髓腔). It contains bone marrow in living bones. The extremities are wider and are called epiphyses(骺). The smooth surfaces of the ends are called articular surfaces(關(guān)節(jié)面).The articular surfaces are covered by articular cartilage(關(guān)節(jié)軟骨). There is an epiphysial line (骺線) between the shaf

22、t and the epiphyses, which is from ossification (骨化) of the epiphysial cartilages (骺軟骨). (2) The short bonesThey are roughly in cuboid shape. They distribute in wrist and foot and include the carpal bones(腕骨) and tarsal bones (跗骨). (3) The flat bonesThey consist of two plates of compact bone with sp

23、ongy bone between them. The flat bones include the ribs(肋), sternum (胸骨), scapulae (肩胛骨), and many bones of the skull.In the cranial bones, the layers of compact bone are called the plates of the skull(the outer plate and the inner plate). The intervening spongy substance is called the diploe(板障).Th

24、e functions of flat bones are usually to protect the important organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the liver and the spleen etc, or provide broad surfaces for muscular attachment. (4) The Irregular bonesThe irregular bones are greatly varied in shape. They include many of the cranial bon

25、es, the vertebrae, and the hip bones. Some cranial bones contain air-filled cavities or sinuses(竇) and are known as pneumatic bones (含氣骨). Maxillae(上頜骨) are the examples.2. The Structure of Bones Living bones consist of bony substance(骨質(zhì)), periosteum (骨膜) and bone marrow (骨髓), and are abundant in bl

26、ood and nerve supply.bonebony substance(骨質(zhì))periosteum (骨膜) bone marrow (骨髓)compact(dense) bone 骨密質(zhì)cancellous (spongy) bone骨松質(zhì)(1) The bony substanceThe bony substance is divided into compact or dense bone and cancellous or spongy bone. The compact bone forms the shaft of the long bone and the externa

27、l layer other kinds of bone. The compact bone is capable of resisting stresses and bending. The cancellous bone consists of a lot of trabeculae, which interweave each other like sponge. The spongy bone distributes in epiphyses and fills in the interior(內(nèi)部) of all bones. (2) The periosteumperiosteum

28、骨膜fibrous membrane (纖維膜, outer layer)vascular membrane (血管膜, inner layer) The whole bone is invested by periosteum except the articular surfaces.The periosteum consists of two layers: an outer or fibrous membrane(纖維膜) and an inner or vascular membrane(血管膜).The latter is lined with bone-forming cells

29、, the osteoblasts(成骨細(xì)胞). The periosteum plays important roles in the regeneration of the bones. In order to prevent the bony necrosis(壞死) or delayed healing(愈合), the periosteum should be preserved as much as possible in operation. (3)Bone marrow bone marrow骨髓red bone marrow 紅骨髓yellow bone marrow 黃骨髓

30、The bone marrow is found in the medullary cavities of long bones and within the spaces in cancellous bone. There are two kinds of bone marrow: red and yellow. The red marrow is capable of making blood cells. It consists of many developing blood cells of varied periods. The yellow marrow comprises a

31、lot of fat. At birth, the cancellous bone and the medullary cavities of long bones are filled with red marrow. By the sixth year, the red marrow in the medullary cavities is gradually replaced by yellow marrow. At about 18th year, red marrow in the bones of limbs is almost entirely replaced by yello

32、w one. Thereafter, it is confined to the axial skeleton(中軸骨) and the hip bones(髖骨), the upper ends of femur (股骨) and humerus (肱骨), and performs continuously the function of blood-forming. A puncture on iliac crest (or spinous process of lumbar vertebra, or sternum) to examine the marrow is a useful

33、method to make a diagnosis of some blood diseases. In some types of anemia(貧血), the death rate of the red cells is high, the yellow marrow reverts to red in an endeavor to support the birth rate. 3.The Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of Bones Living bones are chemically composed of orga

34、nic and inorganic components. Bones have an organic framework of fibrous tissue and cells, among which inorganic salts are deposited. The organic materials (有機質(zhì), the main one is collagen) form 30-40% the dry weight of bone.The inorganic materials (無機質(zhì), mineral salts, the main one is calcium phosphat

35、e) form 60-70% the dry weight of the bone. In mature living bone, about one-fifth of the weight is water.The organic materials give the bones resilience and toughness; the inorganic materials give them hardness and rigidity. The physical properties of the bones depend upon the chemical components. I

36、n infants and children, the organic components are relatively more than those in adults, so their bones are softer, and are easy to be deformed. In old people, the inorganic components are comparatively more, and bone fracture(骨折) in the aged people is more often. By submerging a bone in a mineral a

37、cid(such as hydrochloric acid, HCl) the salts can be removed, but the organic materials remain. Such a specimen(標(biāo)本) is flexible.For example, a decalcified (脫鈣的) fibula can be tied in a knot. By burning a bone with fire, the organic material is removed, this bone is more brittle than porcelain(瓷器). I

38、t is crumbled and fractured easily.4.The Blood and Nerve Supply of Bones The bones are furnished with an abundance of fine arterioles and nerves. 5.The Development of Bones Bone develops from mesoderm(中胚層). At about the eighth gestational week (孕周), There are two patterns of ossification(骨化):intrame

39、mbranous ossification (膜內(nèi)成骨/膜化骨) and intracartilaginous (endochondral) ossification (軟骨內(nèi)成骨/軟骨化骨) . (1)Intramembranous ossification (膜內(nèi)成骨/膜化骨): The ossification takes place in connective fibrous membrane without intervention of cartilage formation. Flat bones and many irregular bones are developed in

40、 this form.(2)Intracartilaginous (endochondral) ossification (軟骨內(nèi)成骨/軟骨化骨):The ossification takes place in cartilage models. Long bones are formed in this form.Some bones develop from a single ossific center(骨化中心), others have two or more centers of ossification. In latter, the primary ossific center

41、s (初級骨化中心) form the shaft or diaphysis. The secondary centers of ossification (次級骨化中心) form the epiphysis. After a time the epiphyses are separated from the shaft by epiphysial cartilage. The increase of bones in length takes place at the continuous ossification of the epiphysial cartilage (骺軟骨). Ev

42、entually the epiphysial cartilage becomes entirely ossified.The epiphysial cartilage becomes the epiphysial line. When this has taken place, no further increase of the bone in length can occur. Most of the epiphyses become completely ossified during the 18th - 20th year, one or two years earlier in

43、girls than in boys. The development of the skeleton is finished entirely in the 25th year. 6. The Functions of Bones The functions of bones can be summed up as follows:(1)to be the framework of the body; (2) to be the levers for muscles; (3) to protect certain important organs; (4) to be the sites f

44、or the development of blood cells; (5) to be the storehouse of calcium and phosphorus. Section. The Bones of Trunk 軀干骨The bones of trunk include the vertebrae(椎骨), the sternum(胸骨), and the ribs(肋). The Vertebrae (椎骨)In a child, the normal number of the separate vertebrae is 33, which include 7 cervi

45、cal, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 4 coccygeal vertebrae. In the adult, the 5 sacral vertebrae fused with each other to form the sacrum(骶骨), and 4 coccygeal vertebrae to form the coccyx(尾骨). () The general features of the vertebrae A typical vertebra, the vertebra in the middle thoracic region

46、, is made up of two parts: the vertebral body(椎體) and the vertebral arch(椎弓). The vertebral body and the vertebral arch enclose the vertebral foramen(椎孔). The arch has a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, which extends seven processes, viz., four articular processes(關(guān)節(jié)突) and two transverse proc

47、esses (橫突) and a spine(棘突). () The main characteristics of vertebrae in each region 1. The thoracic vertebrae (胸椎) The characters of thoracic vertebrae are as follows:(1)They have two costal fovea on each side of their bodies; (2) They have transverse fovea on their transverse processes (apart from

48、those of the lower two thoracic vertebrae). (3)The spines of thoracic vertebrae are long and downward sloping, the articular facets of articular processes are relatively vertical. 2. The cervical vertebrae (頸椎) The characters of thoracic vertebrae are as follows:(1)They have transverse foramen in ea

49、ch transverse process. (2)The end of the transverse process is bifucated into anterior and posterior tubercls. (3)The spines are short and bifid except the first and the seventh. The first cervical vertebra, the atlas(寰椎), has no body and no spine. It consists of anterior and posterior arches united

50、 on each side by a lateral mass. There is fovea dentis(齒突窩) at the middle of the posterior surface of the anterior arch. The second cervical vertebra, the axis, bears the odontoid process (dens) on the superior aspect of its body, on which there is an anterior articular surface of dens for articulat

51、ion with the fovea dentis of atlas. The seventh cervical vertebra is known as vertebra prominens. Its nonbifid spine is relatively long and can be easily felt. 3. The lumbar vertebrae (腰椎)Their vertebral bodies are larger than those of other vertebrae. The spines of them are strong, square and horiz

52、ontal. The articular processes of lumbar vertebrae are almost straight in a vertical plane with articular facets which lie in the sagittal plane.4.The sacrum (骶骨)It is made up of five fused vertebrae and roughly triangular. The sacrum possesses a base, a apex, the anterior (pelvic), dorsal, and late

53、ral surfaces. 5.The coccyx (尾骨)The coccyx is made up of four, more or less, fused coccygeal vertebrae. It is roughly triangular, tapering to an apex below. The base is articulated with the apex of the sacrum.When the vertebrae are placed in series, these foramina form the vertebral canal which lodge

54、s the spinal cord and its coverings. . The Ribs (Costae 肋)Each rib consists of the costal bone(肋骨) and the costal cartilage (肋軟骨). The ribs are connected behind with the vertebral column and are twelve in number on each side. The upper seven pairs of ribs connected anteriorly by their costal cartila

55、ges to the sternum, and are referred to as true ribs(真肋). The lower five pairs of ribs fail to reach the sternum, and are referred to as false ribs (假肋). The costal cartilages of the eighth, ninth and tenth pairs of ribs join the costal cartilage immediately above to form the costal arch. The cartil

56、ages of the eleventh and twelfth are free. So the two ribs are called floating ribs(浮肋). The Sternum (胸骨)The Sternum is a flat bone which lies in the midline of anterior wall of thoracic cage. It consists of the manubrium of sternum(胸骨柄), body of sternum(胸骨體)and xiphoidprocess(劍突). The junction of t

57、he manubrium and the body forms the sternal angle(胸骨角), which is slightly convex forward and easily palpated even in the obese. The sternal angle is a useful landmark in clinic work.For the lateral sides of the sternal angle are articulated with the second costal cartilage, so according to this, the

58、 order of the ribs and the intercostal space can be determined. Section. The Bones of Limbs 四肢骨The Bones of Limbs (the appendicular skeleton,附肢骨) includes the bones of upper limbs and the bones of the lower limbs.The upper limbs are released from weight bearing and become the organs of labour, so the bones of upper limb are lighter and smaller in shape and size than those of lower limbs. . The Bones of Upper Limbs (上肢骨)The bones of upper limb include shoulder girdle(肩帶骨) and the bones of free upper limbs (自由上肢骨).The bones of shoulder girdle include clavicle(鎖骨) and scc