高級英語寫作 Argumentation（課堂PPT）

1、ARGUMENTATIONIntroduction of CONTENTS目錄1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument What is argumentation ? Argumentation is analyzed, review of a problem or something, that a style of their own poin

2、t of view, position, attitude, views and propositions.Critical reviewEditorialsResumeLetters to the editorsExamples of argumentation writing are:Job evaluationJob application letterLetter of recommendation2. Principles and Conventions A good argumentation should abide by the following conventions:Fo

3、llow the rules of reasonThree kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experienceEvidence must be presented logicallyThree types of appeals:ethos(喻德）喻德）,logos（喻理）（喻理）,pathos（喻情）（喻情）14A well-defined,controversial issueA clear position taken by the writerA convincing

4、argument 23A reasonable toneA good argumentation should include:1. A well-defined,controversial issue:e.g. lFirst children are smarter-But why?l Marriage makes our children richer Heres why l Eating popcorn in the cinema makes people immune to advertising lMen and women cant be just friends 2. A cle

5、ar position taken by the writere.g. CorrectlCan heterosexual men and women ever be “just friends”? a new study suggests that men, relative to women, have a particularly hard time being “just friends.” e.g. ErrorlXXX is one of the most important things in peoples life.It has many advantages.However,j

6、ust as every coin has two sides,XXX also has some disadvantages.3. A convincing argumentfacts,statistics,testimony,examples 4. A reasonable toneI beliveI thinkCONTENTS目錄1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakne

7、ss in argument Convergent argumentArgument structures 1. Simple argumentClaim Support inference A simple argument only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following: SUPER NANNIES To keep up with the times,Norland College in England,trainning nannies,has added two new classes

8、to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技駕駛).Why? Because the children of the rich and famous are often targeted by the paparazzi(狗仔隊) ,and could potentially become victims of kidnapping （綁架）attempts. So,Noland thinks its naannies need to know how to handle these high-risk situations.Claim

9、 Support/Claim Support inferenceinferenceA chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The support of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following: relay race 接力比賽2. Chain argument小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！3. Compound argumentA compound ar

10、gument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following:Claim Support inferenceinferenceinferenceSupport Support CELEBRITIES WHO FELL FROM GRACE 那些自毀前途的明星 “The higher you go,the harder you fall”is a common English expression.It means the more successful you become,the more

11、 you have to lose.And its an experience shared by many celebrities who have ruined their careers by doing something stupid or illegal.Here are some famous people who have fallen from grace. Tiger Woods In 2009,Tiger Woods was the best golfer in the worldBut then he had an affair.In December2009,the

12、tabloids（小報） revealed that Woods had cheated on his wife with more than 12 women Lindsay Lohan Between 2003 and 2005,Lindsay Lohan starred in a string of highly successful films and became known as the teen move queenUnfortunately,in 2006,Lindsay started drinking and doing drugs;and since 2007,shes

13、been arrested over twenty times.Phil Spector is currently in prison for murder.Lance Armstrong use performance enhancing drugs.Should Smoking Be Banned? It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking. However, although I feel that smoking can be harmful, I do not think it should be

14、banned. First, smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax. For some, it . A further point is that governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes. This provides funds . I would also argue that people should have the right to choose whether they smoke or not. P

15、eople should not smoke .兄弟，來兄弟，來一根呀！一根呀！Support Support Support Claim 4. Convergent argumentClaim Support inferenceSupport A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim. In other words,only one support cannot stand well without the other,as shown in the following.rather th

16、an it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think：well-knit（嚴謹）1、its so cold outside,lets have hot pot for dinner ok?3、because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！4、ok,lets go!最后，他們最后，他們在一起了！在一起了！2、why do we have to eat hot pot ?The weather is so cold today.we should eat hot pot fo

17、r dinner today. Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather.熱火鍋結(jié)構(gòu)熱火鍋結(jié)構(gòu)5. Complex argumentClaim Support Support/Claim Support Support Support Support A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argumentation,an shown in the following:Sherlock

18、： Watson is his flatmateWatson need to get a flatshare.Just after lunch ,Mike and Watson come.Watson got shotWatson cant afford London on an Army pension.Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate. 小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！Convergent argumentArgument structures CONTENTS目錄1. Definition 2. Pri

19、nciples and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument Strategies1. Reasoning2. Example3. Raising figures4. Contrast and comparison5. Making concessions6. Quotation7. Analogy.1. ReasoningReasoning is to organise the causes and ef

20、fects in a logical way.inductive reasoning（歸納法）reasoning from detailed facts to general princiles(or from effect to cause)deductive reasoning(演繹法)reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞therefore, as a result,consequently, fortunately, surprisingly.常用句式As ，since，be

21、causeDue to，owing to，Because of ，thanks to The reason why is that be related to be associated with contribute to “Facts speak louder than words.” - Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim. 2. Example常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞as an illustration, for example, in particular, spe

22、cifically, to illustrate, to demonstrate.常用句式A good case in point is that A typical example can be found in Claim: opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied.支持：便宜、安全又環(huán)保，為什么不選擇它呢？反對：又沒有足夠的實驗證明轉(zhuǎn)基因食品絕對安全，所以應該謹慎對待！“Let the data speak for themselves.” Statistic data from an

23、 authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your claim. 3. Raising figuresWays to present figures:table (表格)line graph（折線圖）bar chart（柱狀圖）pie chart（餅狀圖）process diagram（流程圖）Claim: is very papular,expecially among young women.4. Contrast and comparisonclaim:It is more expensive to liv

24、e in China than in America.e.g.Assume that you earn 8000/month in China and your. American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America.for you : 60 years for Peter:6 yearsfor you : 10 years for Peter:0.5 years20 4 $常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞Likewise, similarlyIn contrast,on the contrary, while, whereas. 5. Making con

25、cessionsIt is a indirect way to express your disagreement with an opinion. It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable.常見表達AlthoughthoughAs is grantedIn spite of the fact that Opponents would argue that 小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！6. Quotati

26、onA quotation is a phrase from a book,research, play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible and authoritive.In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. -Albert Einstei

27、n 常用句式Just as sb puts it.According to a recent study.A recent opinion poll revealed that A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse. -Xiaoping Deng A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier. -Napolon Bonaparte7. AnalogyAnalogy is an inference that if things agree in some respe

28、cts they probably agree in others.e.g.water is to fish what air is to humans.I love you,just like mice like rice.常用句式A is to B what C is to D.Just like.CONTENTS目錄1. Definition 2. Principles and Conventions 3. Argument structures 4. Strategy 6. An example 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in a

29、rgument 1. Absolute statements Although it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression, avoid making absolute claims that can be dismissed with a single exception. example We cant communicate with people from other country without learning English.要不咱說中文？成啊。小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！ Money is ev

30、erything.The heart made by money is empty.example男人沒一個好東西 No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/ everything/ nothing.2. False dilemma Avoid overdramatizing your case by offering readers only two alternatives. Most readers will immediately recognize the weakness of such an unr

31、ealistic argument.example Its necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it! lovehate老媽女盆友3. Basing arguments on personalitiesDont presume that readers will be impressed by citing endorsements by famous people. The fact that a celebrity or single experts supports your argument is not convincin

32、g evidence. Dont attack the personality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it. National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.exampleKathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be

33、. 我是權(quán)威我怕誰！National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.4. False analogy Comparisons form weak arguments. Although they may be useful to illustrate an idea, they rarely provide convincing evidence. The fact that an educational policy works in Japan does not mean it will

34、 work in the United States. exampleThe fact that a policy works in the past doesnt means it still works in today.Birth control policy is essential to our social and economic system.5. Hasty generalizations Make sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence and not coincidence or simple

35、circumstance. example French people are more romantic Asian students are better in math. 6. Begging the questions Avoid assuming elements that must be proven. You cannot argue, “the outmoded computer systems must be replaced,” until you prove that the system is indeed outdated.example The weakest co

36、untries have no real international status.這話誰說的？Absolute statementsBasing arguments on personalitiesHasty generalizationsFalse dilemmaFalse analogyBegging the questions Logical fallacies I strongly recommend that people should I agree to the point to some extent. I would like to believe thatshould be Formypart/Astome/AsfarasIamconcerned,Idliketoagreetotheformerpointofview./Myfavorgoestothefirstpointofview. Thereareprobablysometruthsi