chapter 2 (87-97)

1、Chapter 2 Engineers and Safety87It has been said that when a physician makes an error, only one victim suffers, but when an engineer makes an error in design of a product, many persons may suffer. The question then becomes, which is more important for the wellbeing of the public: the physician or th

2、e engineer?當醫(yī)師在工作中失誤時，只有一個受害人會遭殃，但當一個工程師在產(chǎn)品設(shè)計中失誤時，將會有很多人會遭殃。因此，有這樣一個問題：醫(yī)師和工程師誰對公眾的健康更重要？ Accomplishments of EngineersThe profession of engineering is a relatively new one that has increased tremendously with the growth of technology. Until the end of the Middle Ages with its comparatively slow techn

3、ological developments，there were relatively few changes in manufactured devices or human activities. Industry was still almost entirely agricultural. Power was generated principally by the muscles of humans, horses。oxen、or other animals.工程師職業(yè)是一個隨科技的發(fā)展而飛速增強的相對新的職業(yè)。一直到中世紀末，科技都發(fā)展的相當?shù)芈?，在人發(fā)明的設(shè)備或人類活動方面只有少

4、數(shù)的幾項改變。產(chǎn)業(yè)仍舊幾乎完全是農(nóng)業(yè)的，主要靠人，馬，?；蚱渌鼊游铮ǖ募∪猓┨峁﹦恿?。The invention of steam-powered equipment and its attendant enterprises was a tremendous boon to humankind. Savery invented the steam engine in 1698. The first primitive，inefficient steam engines were later improved by Thomas Newcomer(c. 171 1), James Watt(1

5、769), and many others. The burning of coal became a prime means of transferring heat energy to steam to drive engines. From that time forward, the number of inventions of all types grew rapidly, and with them their applications.蒸汽動力設(shè)備的發(fā)明及伴隨企業(yè)的出現(xiàn)對人類來說是一個巨大的促進。Savery在1689年發(fā)明了蒸汽機車。第一臺簡單的效率低下的蒸汽機車隨后被Tho

6、mas Newcomer, James Watt和許多其他人改進。燃煤成了把熱能轉(zhuǎn)換為蒸汽以驅(qū)動機車的主要方式。從此以后，各種各樣的發(fā)明及其應(yīng)用就迅速多了起來。The time from the invention of steam engines until their use by Stephenson in locomotives was about 110 years. Operation of the laser was theorized in 1958，patented in 1960. and put into commercial production almost imme

7、diately. With the accelerated growth in technology, an engineers training is said to be obsolete in five years. 從蒸汽機的發(fā)明到它被斯蒂芬森應(yīng)用于火車機車大約110年的時間。激光的作用于1958年提出其理論，1960年申請專利，并且?guī)缀跬瑫r投入了商業(yè)化生產(chǎn)。隨著科技的加速增長，可以說工程師的培訓學習就顯得過時5年。Over the years, engineers designed and constructed tremendously larger, more energetic

8、, hazardous, costly, and complex systems, and plants and new facilities started using or producing new materials, products, and processes. It was said that a new chemical was developed every twenty minutes. Many of them were hazardous. 在過去那些年里，工程師設(shè)計并建造了龐大的、高能量的、危險的、昂貴、復雜的系統(tǒng)、車間和新設(shè)備，來生產(chǎn)新物質(zhì)、產(chǎn)品和生產(chǎn)工藝。據(jù)說每

9、二十分鐘就能開發(fā)出一種新的化學物質(zhì)，且大部分是有害的。88 Engineering And AccidentsTime and again new products, processes, methods, operations, and systems could not be used because of the dangers they presented.反反復復地，新產(chǎn)品、新工藝、新方法、新作業(yè)、新系統(tǒng)因為它們帶來的危險而不能被應(yīng)用。生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營單位采用“四新”之前必須了解、掌握其安全技術(shù)特性，采取有效的安全防護措施，并對從業(yè)人員進行專門的安全生產(chǎn)教育和培訓。Since time im

10、memorial，mining for metal ores has been a hazardous occupation resulting in many accidents. The advent of steam engines and the new demand for coal increased the hazards and accidents even more，as coal mining grew into a tremendous industry. The principal hazard was the possibility of asphyxiation b

11、ecause of the lack of proper ventilation and the presence of carbon monoxide. Miners carried caged canaries whose death provided warning of the lack of adequate respirable air. immemorial 古老的, 遠古的, 無法追憶的 asphyxiation 窒息carbon monoxide 一氧化碳cage 籠, 檻, (礦井) 貫籠canary 金絲雀respirable air 可呼吸的空氣自遠古時代，金屬礦是導致

12、事故多發(fā)的危險性的行業(yè)。蒸汽機的出現(xiàn)和對煤的新的需求加劇了它的危險性和事故的發(fā)生，因為（為滿足這些需求）煤礦開采已形成了一個巨大的產(chǎn)業(yè)。煤礦主要的危險是因缺少正確的通風方法和一氧化碳的存在導致可能窒息。礦工們帶著關(guān)在籠中的金絲雀下井，金絲雀的死可給他們一個這兒缺乏足夠的可呼吸空氣的警告。 As coal mining went deeper, it grew more hazardous. A new danger was that of ignition of pockets of the flammable gas known as fire damp, swamp gas, or met

13、hane. This occurred often when the candles the miners had to carry for illumination ignited the methane. To lessen possibilities of ignition of the gas, fireflies and the phosphorescence of putrescent fish were tried as means of providing light, but without success.pocket 礦坑fireflies 螢火蟲flammable 易燃

14、的, 可燃性的phosphorescence 磷光 fire damp 沼氣，爆炸氣體 putrescent將腐爛的, 腐敗的 swamp 沼澤, 濕地, 煤層聚水.methane甲烷The safety and well-being of horses and other beasts were more highly considered than those of the miners. The number of fires, explosions, and disasters grew, causing so much loss of life that in 1813 some E

15、nglish clergymen asked Sir HumphreyDavy to investigate whether any means of fire prevention was possible. After due study, Davy found wire gauze to be an effective barrier in inhibiting the spread of fires. In 1815 he developed a miners safety lamp using metal wire gauze. The lamp proved effective a

16、lthough not completely so. Improvements by him and others, such as Stephenson，did much to lessen the problem of ignition of fires in mines. 在1815年，Davy提出了一種用金屬網(wǎng)制作的煤礦安全燈，雖然它不能徹底消除煤礦上點燃引起的火災(zāi)，但證明了它的確有效。他和其他人的改進在減少煤礦上點燃引起的火災(zāi)問題方面作了很大的貢獻，就如同斯蒂芬森的蒸氣機一樣。Clergymen：圣職者due：適當?shù)?應(yīng)付的, 預期的wire gauze（薄紗，網(wǎng)）：金屬網(wǎng)an ef

17、fective barrier (障礙物, 柵欄, 屏障)：一種有效的阻礙 Steam Equipment And AccidentsStephenson also built locomotives to pull trains of cars and created the first railroad line. Railroads proved to be so highly beneficial for transporting people and freight that copies and improvements were rapidly adopted almost wo

18、rldwide. With railroadscame fatal accidents. The first occurred in England the day Stephensons first railroad line was dedicated, when a prominent English legislator was killed. Only a year later the boiler of the first locomotive built in the United States blew up. killing one manand badly injuring

19、 other fuel servers. As a safeguard for the passengers on the train, the coaches were separated from the locomotive by bales of cotton. It was an early indication of the hazards involved with use of boiler-powered equipment.coach 教練，列車司機 bales of 大捆，大包Railroads and steamboats were created at about t

20、he same time and with similar problems, principally violent ruptures of boilers by steam pressure. As mentioned earlier. in 1833 President Andrew Jackson asked Congress for action to control the “criminal negligence” which caused accidents because of exploding boilers. In his Fifth Annual Message to

21、 Congress he called for the adoption of corrective legislation. Although mishaps and losses aboard steamboats on the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri rivers occasioned his immediate concern and comment, similar problems with accidents and explosions had arisen east of the Alleghenies with railroads.

22、The number of fatalities and injuries because of transportation equipment accidents was called “horrendous” by a well-known magazine of the time. The occurrence of explosions continued to create a record of disasters. ruptures 破裂, 決裂, 割裂 horrendous 可怕的89On October 8, 1894, twenty. seven small boiler

23、s in a plant in Shamokin. Pennsylvania, exploded progressively（相繼地）. According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME), by 1910 there were between 1, 300 and 1, 400 boiler explosions each year. This was almost four each and every day. There was little respect for safety and accident pr

24、evention. progressively 相繼地 Technical Societies And SafetyTechnical societies had been formed to provide interchanges of information between persons involved in engineering. The ASME held its first annual meeting in 1880 primarily to standardize dimensions of screws, pipes, and similar items. Engine

25、ersdesires to eliminate accidents were generally focused on avoiding damage and destruction of property and equipment, because it adversely affected profitable operations and increased insurance costs.screw skru: n.螺絲釘, 螺旋, 螺桿, 螺孔, 螺旋槳, 吝嗇鬼vt.調(diào)節(jié), 旋, 加強, 壓榨, 強迫, 鼓舞vi.轉(zhuǎn)動, 旋, 擰property n.財產(chǎn), 所有物, 所有權(quán),

26、性質(zhì), 特性, (小)道具adversely adv.逆地, 反對地increased insurance costs 增加的保險費差別費率制度Other than with great disasters, for uncounted years most accidents have been mistakenly accepted as being expected and unavoidable occurrences. There was inadequate concern for the safety of the low-paid workers who were contin

27、ually subjected to unhealthful working conditions. sickness. and mishaps that shortened their lives. To a great extent. many of the first safety measures were advocated and initiated by insurance companies to minimize monetary losses and costly litigation. Moreover, to gain economic advantages, manu

28、facturers approved, released, and distributed newly invented or discovered advances before the potentials for injury, death or damage had been evaluated properly. 此外，在潛在的傷害、死亡或損害被完全評估之前為獲取經(jīng)濟利益，制造商就發(fā)行預付款。This tendency worsened as the rate of industrial research and development accelerated. As manufac

29、turers become more competitive. engineers were pressured to finish new designs rapidly and at lower costs. with the result there were more errors, design deficiencies, and causes of accidents. Inadequate time was allowed for engineers to analyze the existence of hazards andor to investigate potentia

30、l safety problems. After the space shuttle Challenger exploded because of faulty design, the solid propellant boosters had to be redesigned. A newspaper said: ”. . . rocket engineers. under pressure from NASA to redesign the rockets in time for a projected July 1987 launch. are complaining that the

31、deadline may be creating an atmosphere in which concern for safety is tempered by schedule demands. ”Compounding this problem is the fact that little time is spent in teaching basic safety principles in engineering schools. 對那些低收入工人的安全關(guān)注不夠，而這些人往往長期頻繁遭受不健康的工作環(huán)境、疾病或使人縮短壽命的災(zāi)難的影響。綜合這些問題不難看出，在工程學校幾乎沒花費多少

32、時間教授基本的安全原理這一事實。litigation n.訴訟, 起訴 disaster 天災(zāi)being expected預料中的 occurrence發(fā)生的事情initiate發(fā)起 NASA (美國)國家航空和宇宙航行局tempere調(diào)節(jié)的, 緩和的 compound組合1NADEQUACY OF ENGINEERING SCHOOLSIt is often said, erroneously, that information on safety is included in engineering courses. Because so many subjects and facts m

33、ust be taught in engineering schools, instruction in safety and accident prevention is often omitted. Meanwhile, the need for knowledge of hazards analyses and accident causes and avoidance has grown extensively. The amount of safety knowledge required has become so great that instructors cannot con

34、vey it offhandedly and quickly. The worst aspect of the situation is that most faculty members who instruct engineering students in safety matters have themselves been inadequately educated. offhandedly adv. 立即地, 即席地90 Although Lederers comments were oriented toward aeronautical engineers ·they

35、 apply to all technical disciplines: “Oversights in design lead to accidents for several reasons: the engineers inexperience or ignorance, the engineers attitude and the engineers subjection to economic control. In the past, many errors might have been avoided if engineers had been early imbued with

36、 a greater awareness of safety principles. To permit repetition of oversights in design is hardly excusable, but they are repeated as each generation of engineers progresses to positions of administrative responsibility leaving in its wake a semi-vacuum of design “Know-how.”允許設(shè)計中一再的失誤的重復幾乎是不可原諒的。com

37、ment 注解, 注釋 aeronautical 航空學的oversight 勘漏, 失察, 疏忽, 失敗, 小心照顧imbue 浸透,染透 semi-vacuum半真空的 The comments of Hollister and Traut (Chapter 1)regarding the gradual increase in concern because of increased complexity and magnitudes of hazards, accidents, and costs are also highly relevant. As an indication o

38、f design inadequacy, about 1959 an Air Force safety engineer pointed out: The classic of all design deficiencies which have come to our attention was a combination safety shower and eyewash constructed at a northern missile site. In order to operate the eyewash. it was necessary for a man, who might

39、 already be blinded by acid, to put his head in the eyewash bowl and then to turn on the water valve with his right foot. The only problem was that the foot-operated valve was about four feet to his rear and higher than his waist. As an additional feature, if a man did happen to hit the valve, he go

40、t a full shower from overhead as well as getting his eyes washed out. However, the whole problem became academic in winter because the whole system froze up.Sir Henry Royce, who set one of the highest standards of all times in sound, reliable design, epitomized the right approach: ”If you give a man

41、 a power tool to work with and he comes to disasteryou dont blame the man, blame the designer.” The same British reference in Engineering cites the Robens Report, which led to many improvements in safety and health at work. The aim stated was to ensure, as far as practicable, that plant, machinery,

42、equipment and materials are so designed and constructed as to be intrinsically safe in use. Engineers As Causers Of AccidentsFigure 6-1 indicates how engineering deficiencies can cause or contribute to accidents, as indicated by the shaded portion. Any engineering deficiency can affect management；cr

43、eate malfunctions and failures, maintenance problems, and failures to protect against adverse environments；and/or cause operator errors. Figure 6-2 presents a limited introduction to some aspects of malfunctions, failures, and reliability. All other factors indicated in Fig. 6-1 are treated in some

44、of the following chapters. “Miscellaneous other in the figure denotes that the exact accident cause would either be indeterminable or involve three or more factors.Figure 6-3 lists the hazard factors that were accident causes in the chemical and allied industries. The largest factor, “equipment fail

45、ures,” includes “hazards built into the equipment.”0ther factors might also be attributable to design, such as “chemical process problems” or ”structure not in conformity with use requirements”.91Registration of EngineersFIGURE 6-1 Design Deficiencies Also Partly Attribute to Other Causes of Acciden

46、ts As a means of lessening accidents with their fatalities, injuries, and economic losses in damages and destruction, after the turn of the century registration of engineers was initiated. Like the workers' compensation laws, which aimed initially to induce greater regard for safety and accident

47、 prevention, registration of engineers has failed to achieve its major intent.作為一種減少事故傷亡及經(jīng)濟損失的方式，在世紀之交興起了工程師注冊。 工程師注冊主要目的是促使其對安全及事故預防的高度關(guān)注,但像工人賠償法一樣它并沒有達到這個主要目的。Registration of engineers was first enacted in 1907 in Wyoming., where it originated in a plan to control land surveying. Unqualified perso

48、ns had been issuing land-plat plans that turned out to be erroneous, deceptive, false, or incomprehensible. Instead of a law simply to control land surveying, the public demanded a means of lessening accidents on the railroads. The public had become so incensed that it forced legislators to enact th

49、e first state law for registration of engineers. It was believed that better engineering would reduce the number of inadequate and deficient designs with. Soon other states began enacting similar legislation. The last state to require registration of engineers to protect public safety was Texas, mot

50、ivated by a massive accident. In 1937 an explosion of leaking natural gas killed more than 400 students and teachers.工程師注冊法于1907年頒布于懷俄明州，其源于陸地測量控制計劃。不合格的人過去論證的土地圖計劃被證明是錯誤的、有欺騙性的、假冒的或不可理解的。公眾需要的是一種能切實減少鐵路事故的方法，而不是單純地以法律來控制土地測量。公眾是如此惱火以至于強迫立法者制定一部工程師注冊的法律。their attendant failures in railroad operation

51、s, exploding locomotive boilers, and collapsing trestles. 人們相信良好的工程技術(shù)能夠減少設(shè)計中的不足及缺陷，而這些設(shè)計缺陷會導致鐵路運行過程中的故障、機車鍋爐爆炸和腳手架的倒塌。不久其他州也開始制定類似的立法。最后一個要求建立注冊工程師制度以保護公眾安全的是德克薩斯州，它由1937年天然氣泄露爆炸致使400多名學生和教師死亡這一起重大事故引發(fā)。The first major problem regarding registration of engineers was that in most states, only engineer

52、s in the civil (including structural) discipline had to be registered in order to practice. About the time of passage of Wyomings law, about 50 percent of a11 engineers were in the civil discipline (they now constitute 12 to 14 percent of all practicing engineers). All other engineers, except in a v

53、ery few states, were (and still are) exempted from registration. After a number of years, some states began to permit other types of engineers to register, although they were not required to do so. A number have done so because it permits them to use the title “consulting engineer”· 關(guān)于注冊工程師的首要問

54、題是在大部分州，為了實用目的僅僅土木學科的(包括建筑)工程師需要注冊。在懷俄明州法律通過的那段時間大約50%的工程師是在土木學科(由12-14%的執(zhí)業(yè)工程師構(gòu)成)。 除了少部分州外，其他所有工程師免于注冊(現(xiàn)在仍然如此)。多年以后，一些州開始準許其他工程師注冊，盡管他們并不必如此。部分工程師進行了注冊，因為這可以使他們使用“顧問工程師”的頭銜。92FIGURE 6-2 Malfunctions, Failures, and ReliabilityThe great number of malfunctions and failures in military products during W

55、orld War II called for better equipment that failed less frequently and required less maintenance. Often, failures occurred at inconvenient limes and locations when operability was critical. The term "reliability" came to connote the probability that a piece of equipment or a component wou

56、ld perform its intended function satisfactorily for a prescribed time under stipulated conditions. A malfunction might include a complete failure, an un-programmed operation or premature operation (false start), an erroneous output, or a cessation of operation at a time it was not designed to do so.

57、 Reliability and safety are closely related but are not synonymous, For example, an unreliable firearm that will not discharge may be completely safe, because it is inert and its bullets could harm no one.The method developed to study and calculate the probability of success of a product, the cause

58、of any malfunction, and the downstream effects a malfunction might generate is known as Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA). An FMEA is often used to help compute approximately the time a complex piece of equipment or product will function without failure. Programs of timely replacements can t

59、hen be prepared. In an FMEA each proposed design of a products progressively separated into its major assemblies. Subassemblies, and component parts. The length of time each of the parts will last and the percentage of failures in a large group is determined by actual test, this is the estimated probability of Success or reliability of the part. All subassembly, assembly, an