淺談中西方餐桌文化的差異

1、【標(biāo)題】淺談中西方餐桌文化的差異 【作者】 【關(guān)鍵詞】中西飲食文化；差異；跨文化交際 【指導(dǎo)老師】 【專業(yè)】英語 【正文】.IntroductionFood, as an essential prerequisite for existence, is any substance that provides the necessary nutrients to maintain life and growth.1 It plays an irreplaceable role in the development of society and the human beings, whether

2、in ancient times when primitive man ate the raw flesh of birds and beasts or in modern times when human beings have entered the new era of information, and whether in East or in West.However, there is an old English saying“One mans meat is another mans poison”, which means all human beings have not

3、the same food habits. The different response to eating dog meat is a good case in point. In China, dog meal is generally considered delicious, however, in some Western countries, especially in America, eating dog meat is thought to be abnormal or disgusting. Therefore, one thing we have to bear in m

4、ind is that we human beings have the same basic needs and desires, such as food, but our ways of satisfying them are different. Clyde Kluckhohn, a world-famous anthropologist states in his paper what is culture,“Of course what he eats is limited by availability, but is also partly regulated by cultu

5、re”.2 That is, food remains a close relation to culture, for table manners varies from nations. Therefore, only in their respective culture people can understand food habits better. Since we are not born with knowing of how to dress, what toys to play with, what to eat, which gods to worship, or how

6、 to spend our money and our time.3 It is the culture that supplies us with the answers to these and other countless questions.Therefore, in this research I endeavor to analyze the cultural differences and their inherent causes about Chinese and Western table manners from the perspectives of concept,

7、 etiquette and points out that with the development of cultural communication, more and more factors and new variables will arise through communication, interaction and imitation. It is the comparative study that pours the new“blood” into the body of a culture, which will bring about changes and ben

8、efits to each individual culture.Thirty years ago, the Canadian writer Marshell Mcluhan introduced the term of global village to express the idea that the world seems to be getting smaller-The Earth is not shrinking, but time and space are shrinking4, which is called globalization later. One of the

9、direct outcomes from the globalization is that the contact between people, especially between those who come from different cultures, has been more and more frequent. Since people are inclined to interpret the unfamiliar things or phenomena in terms of their own world outlooks and cultures, more and

10、 more problems and misunderstandings arise inevitably, not only in the aspect of food and food habits, but in many other aspects. Clearly, something is needed more than the contact itself if people who do not share culture want to understand one another. Cross-cultural awareness is just one of them.

11、 The goal of cross-cultural communication, according to Professor Hu Wenzhong,“is to help increase peoples cross-cultural awareness so that fewer problems arise in their interaction with people of another culture. To do this，it is necessary to compare cultures to establish similarities and identify

12、differences”.5 Many other scholars also hold the same idea that a successful cross-cultural understanding is based on recognizing the way in which they resemble one another as well as the way in which they differ.Totally this paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One introduces research objective

13、s, significance of the research, method and overall organizationChapter Two classifies the notion of culture, and explains some related terms. Chapter Three discusses the differences on concepts in Chinese and Western table manners while Chapter Four focus on the differences on etiquette in Chinese

14、and Western table manners respectively. The last chapter is the summary for the whole comparison.Notion of cultureBefore making comparison between Chinese and Western table manners, it is necessary for us to confine the current research to certain aspects to avoid confusion. In this chapter some not

15、ions and terms related to the research will be discussed, such as culture, table manners, intercultural communication, and cross-cultural communication and so on.A. The Definition of CultureWhat is culture, and how to define it? As a matter of fact, many scholars have offered many definitions, rangi

16、ng from broader ones to narrower ones. Sapir says,“Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”.6 Benedict says in her book Patterns of Culture,“What really binds men together is their culture-the ideas and the standards they have in common”.7 Bate and Plog propose a descriptive definit

17、ion that includes most of the major territory of culture on which scholars currently agree:Culture is a system of shared benefits, values, customs, behaviors，and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learn

18、ing.8Based on the definitions mentioned above, Samovar, leading figure in cross-cultural communication, proposes his own definition that is perhaps more suited to the communication between cultures:We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanin

19、gs, hierarchies, religion notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.9These and other definitions all point to one fact that culture is abundant, including everythi

20、ng from the style of the writing to minds and thoughts. Edward. T. Hall, one of the most famous anthropologists and founders of cross-culture communication, once described the omnipresent and commanding power of culture,“There is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by cultur

21、e”.10 In many ways，Hall is correct: Culture is everything and exits in everywhere. Therefore, to some extent, culture is both our teacher and textbook, acting as the guidance to almost every aspect of our lives. Without culture, it is hard to imagine what we human beings will be and how our society

22、will become.B. The Definition of Food CultureWhen we study a culture for communicating purposes, we should focus on the dominant cultural pattern and guard against getting side-tracked. When we compare cultural differences, we should concentrate on the major differences of two dominant patterns. For

23、 instance, when we say differences between Chinese and American cultures, we mean differences between the dominant Han culture and the dominant American culture.11Actually, till now nobody has ever made a widely recognized definition because of various reasons. In order to make the comparison more c

24、oncrete and practical, I confine table manners to the aspects of food habits, food etiquette, the attitudes towards food, the function of food, etc. that are derived from each individual culture.1. Chinese Food CultureChinese food culture in this research mainly refers to the one in the Han national

25、ity. As we all know, China is a nation with 56 ethnic groups, each of which has its unique food, food habits, etc. But the Han nationality and its culture are the mainstream in China due to some historical, political and economic reasons. Therefore, this paper mainly talks about the common table man

26、ners of the Han nationality.2. Western Food CultureWestern table manners in this research is mainly concerned with the one in the English-speaking countries, especially in America and Britain, because their cultural patterns and influence have become dominant in the West，which is generally recognize

27、d by the international community. On the other hand, most of the materials and information on table manners collected by the author are all about American or British peoples food, food habits, etc.CNotion of Some TermsIntercultural communication, generally speaking,“occurs when a member of one cultu

28、re produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture.”12.Frequently, the term cross-culture communication is used when referring to the communication between people from different cultures, since this term implies a comparison between cultures, such as different styles of leadership.

29、Although sometimes people use them interchangeably, there still exists a slight difference between these two terms. American anthropologist Edward C. Stewart points out,“cross-cultural normally refers to any comparison of cultural differences(e.g., a cross-cultural study of values in the U.S. and Ja

30、pan) or to situations in which such differences exist(e. g., a cross-cultural teaching situation). The word, interculture is usually added to communication or relations and it refers to the actual interaction between people from different cultures. For example, in a cross-cultural work environment,

31、Americans and other foreigners are engaged in intercultural communication”.13 In a word, intercultural communication emphasizes the process of communicating, while cross-cultural communication focuses on the comparison of cultures.Since the research is about the comparative study of Chinese and West

32、ern table manners, the term cross-cultural communication will be adopted and those differences in table manners will be compared and analyzed from the cross-cultural rather than intercultural point of view.Differences on Concepts in Chinese and Western Table mannersOne of the most important function

33、s of belief systems is that they are the basis of our values. Kluckhohn defines a value as“a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action”.14 This definition

34、 implies that values are guiding forces of human behavior and show the close relationship between the values we hold and the way we communicate. When people from different cultures come together to interact, their message are guided by, and also reflect, their fundamental values. However, what is hi

35、ghly valued in one culture might be ignored in another culture.In other words, we tend to judge others by using our own value standard, which may cause problems and misunderstandings. The best example is ethnocentrism. Therefore, an understanding of cultural value systems can not only help to identi

36、fy similarities and differences between people from different cultures but also provide a good way to overcome ethnocentrism, from which successful cross-cultural communication can proceed.Perhaps the single studied dimension of cultural variability used to compare and contrast cultures and micro cu

37、ltures is individualism and collectivism,15 which also represents two contrary value orientations. Since values according to Sitaram& Haapanen, are communicated, both explicitly and implicitly, through symbolic behavior,16 we may find lots of examples that can reflect those distinctions from many as

38、pects in each representing culture. The comparison between these two valuable orientations from the perspective of table manners is just one of those examples.A. Collectivism in Chinese Table mannersGeert Hofstedc, a world famous Dutch psychologist, has created an individualism index(IDV) to assess

39、a cultures relative location on the individualism-collectivism dimension. China has relatively low IDV, which means that China prefers a collective orientation as a cultural value. As a matter of fact, in China, collectivistic orientation with deep roots can be traced back to the ancient times. Conf

40、ucius points out,“If one wants to establish himself, he should help others to establish themselves at first”(已欲立而立人，已欲達(dá)而達(dá)人), in which collectives is regarded. In such collectivistic culture, a“We” consciousness prevails, and people are expected to be interdependent and show conformity to the groups

41、norms and values. Group goals usually take precedence over individual goals, and the primary value is to seek harmony with others. Actually group harmony is also highly valued that obedience to, compliance with and in-groups pressures is routine.17This collectivistic orientation can also find its pl

42、ace in Chinese table manners. When Chinese people have a dinner together, normally they would like to share the meal. The typical Chinese dining table is round or square. The dishes are laid in the center, and each participant in the meal is equipped with a bowl for rice, a pair of chopsticks, a sau

43、cer, and a spoon. All at a table take from the dishes as they proceed with the meal. Good eating manners let people have equal chances at all the dishes. In addition, there are many other examples of such kind of collectivistic orientation. When dining out, a host always shows a menu to guests and a

44、sks them to order the dishes they like before making the final decision. It is out of the consideration that the taste of each guest may not be the same, and if something is forgotten or ignored, it is hard to achieve the group harmony. Sometimes a certain dish is deliberately avoided simply because

45、 someone doesnt like it. When a dinner comes to an end, percipients are likely to strive to pay the bill unless someone has claimed in advance. In short, from the moment the dinner starts to the time when it is over, the“sharing” reflects almost everywhere.In 2003, because of the attack from SARS vi

46、rus, although Chinese people began to adopt the“separated” style in some places, it had nothing to do with the value orientation at all. Actually it was just an expedient taken from the perspective of health. The fact is that shortly after the epidemic, Chinese people renewed the old style quickly.B

47、. Individualism in Western Table mannersAccording to Hofstedes IDV, the United States, Great Britain, etc. tend toward individualism. Broadly speaking, individualism refers to the doctrine, spelled out in detail by the seventeenth-century English philosopher John Locke, that each individual is uniqu

48、e, special, completely different from all other individuals, and“the basic unit of nature”.18 Therefore, in individualistic culture, an“I” consciousness prevails, and emphasis is placed on an individuals goals over group goals. In other words, the individual is treated as the most important element

49、in any social setting. This value orientation stresses individual initiative and achievement, and individual decision-making is highly admired. From the cowboys in the West to the heroes in the action film, one thing in common is that they are all portrayed as an independent agent, who accomplishes

50、the goal with little cooperation. This is because they believe in the concept that“God helps those who help themselves”. In fact, this orientation is so strong in some countries like America that people believe there is something wrong with someone who fails to demonstrate individualism.Greatly infl

51、uenced by the individualistic orientation, Western table manners are characterized by the“separated” style. In many ways, it is contrary to the“sharing” style in Chinese table manners. For example, instead of taking the dishes from the“public” plate, Westerners are more used to separating one dish i

52、nto several parts and then sending one part to each ones bowl or plate before eating. When they order dishes, unlike what Chinese people usually do, Westerners seem to have more freedom and rights. That is to say, weather a host or a guest, what they should do is just to order the dishes they like,

53、with little consideration of others tastes. The way of“go Dutch” is widely taken when the bill is to be paid, which means everyone pays his own share. In conclusion, the role of individualism in Western table manners is obvious and its influence is self- evident too.Differences on Etiquette in Chine

54、se and Western Table mannersEtiquette is another important aspect that should be taken into account in both Chinese and Western food cultures. However, because of disparities between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many differences between Chinese and Western table manners. Therefore, a comp

55、arison between different etiquette in Chinese and Western table manners will help us understand those culturally rooted causes and improve cross-cultural communication.In this chapter, the following six aspects of etiquette in Chinese and Western table manners will be discussed: different tableware,

56、 time of arrival, seating arrangement, way of setting a table, way of sending in foods, and manners of drinking.A. Different Tableware: Chopstick and Fork and Knife1. Chopsticks in Chinese Table mannersChina is an old country and has a history of over five thousand years. China is a traditional agri

57、cultural country and Chinese people mainly live on wheat and rice as their main food by cultivating the farmland; the harvest of the crops depends on nature. The application of chopsticks as the chief tableware can be traced back as early as during the Shang periods. Although hands were probably use

58、d more often than chopsticks.19 When Chinese people use chopsticks, usually they appear to be refined and cultivated, with little disgraceful actions like poking or stabbing, and their attitudes toward food are gentle and kind, although Chinese people also like eating meatRoland Barthes, a well- kno

59、wn French literary critic, once talked about the usage of chopsticks, and he remarked that unlike fork and knife, chopsticks were not used to cut poke or stab food. Therefore,“food was no longer the prey under the human beings violence but turned out to be the substance passed harmoniously through them”(食物不再成為人們暴力之下的獵物，而是成為和諧地被傳送的物質(zhì)).20 Indeed, in this sense, chopsticks have become the gentle medium between man and food, and